LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. I 
# 

[SMITHSONI&K DEPOSIT.] t 

t UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.! 



Ax\ OUTLIiNE 



GENERAL PRIXCIPLES OF GRA^DIAR. 



BRIEF EXPOSITION OF THE CHIEF IDIOMATIC PECU- 
LIARITIES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



TO WHICH QUESTIONS HA^^ BEEN ADDED. 



EDITED AND ENLARGED BY THE 

REV. J. CtRAEFF BARTOX. A.M.. 

PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THE 
NEW YORK FREE ACADEMY. 



.f2 q ^ 
/ 

XET7 YORK: 
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 
PEAEL STREET, FRAXKLIN' SQUARE. 
1855. V- 






/^A- 



Entered, accordinglo Act of Congress, in the year one thousand 
eight hundred and fifty-five', by 

Harper & Brothers, 

'in the Clerk's Ofiice of the District Court of the Southern District 
**'. of New York. 



\ <v. 



\ 



PREFACE. 



The following compendium of Grammar has been 
used by the students of the Preparatory Class in the 
Free Academy for nearly three years, and the good 
service it has done has prompted this new edition. 

The book assumes that the elementary definitions 
of Grammar have already been in somewise studied, 
and that the pupil has learned the common inflec- 
tional forms of the language. It also expects that in 
the institutions where it may be used, there prevails 
the better system of education, which consists in im- 
planting principles, and then educing thought ; in 
disciplining the mind by apt illustrations and skillful 
questioning on the part of the teacher, rather than 
in requiring a painful labor of the memory only, in 
learning numberless pages of dry details about the 
genealogy of an alphabet and the manifold sounds 
of letters. 

The book was written and first published in En- 
gland, being one of a series of works designed to sow 
first principles and quicken thought on various sub- 
jects among the mass of the people. 

This compend, like others of the series, is emi- 



vlll PREFACE. 

nently suggestive. It lays down broadly the univers- 
al necessity of Grammar, because of the wondrous 
ties that knit together word and thought. Hence it 
states the affinity of all languages, based on the fact 
that all dialects are only varied manifestations of the 
same reasoning faculty in man ; and lastly, it indi- 
cates the chief idioms of our own tongue, showing 
wherein our dialect exhibits itself peculiarly. This 
simple plan of opening the subject is profitable to 
teacher and scholar. It profits the scholar, because 
it links into oneness all the grammatical lessons 
which constitute his course of study in ancient and 
modern languages — because it brings out into relief 
the features that are idiomatic, thus making the 
grammar of each several tongue a help in the ac- 
quirement of all the others, cultivating a habit of 
enlarged views, and fostering a careful discernment 
that nicely notes the specific differences of individu- 
als, while it comprehends the greater bonds and prin- 
ciples that embrace genera. The teacher is benefit- 
ed, because this method enlivens the student's mind, 
and thus gives the instructor brighter material to 
work upon ; besides, the various members of an aca- 
demic faculty can thus concentrate their action, be- 
cause the several tongues they teach are regarded as 
brethren affiliated, not as foes adversely arrayed. 
And, furthermore, it immensely relieves both teacher 
and pupil, as it omits the load of technical detail 



PREFACE. IX 

(not distinctive development) which makes so large a 
share in most grammars ; which imposes a crushing 
weight on the memory of the young student ;. which 
almost constrains to rote recitation, precludes spon- 
taneous questioning, and thus debars the teacher from 
that which constitutes the great worth of his labors, 
namely, eliciting the powers of each individual mem- 
ber of his class. It is clear that if the heterogeneous 
magnitude of a Grammar compel a toilsome struggle 
of memory to bear a heavy biu-den of bald facts, all 
students are brought to nearly one and the same dead 
level, and the dull uniformity of the teacher's task is 
changed, only by the alternative of being lulled to 
slumber by the ease, or chafed to nervousness by the 
painfulness of the scholar's delivery of his load. 

A grammar of note now before me (and certainly 
one of much worth) has twenty-five large duodecimo 
pages, well filled with orthographical minutise, some 
of which are as follows : 

" Ch is commonly sounded like tch^ as in church, 
chin, chaff, charter; but in words derived from the 
Greek has the sound of I-, as in chemist, scheme, 
chorus, chyle, distich ; and in foreign names, as 
Achish, Baruch, Enoch," etc. 

Again : " F keeps one pure, unvaried sound at the 
beginning, middle, and end of words ; as fancy, muf- 
fin, mischief, etc. ; except in o/, in which it has the 
flat sound of ov ; but not in composition, as whereof, 



^ . PREFACE. 

thereof, etc. We should not pronounce a wive's 
jointure, a calve's head; but a wife's jointure, a 
a calf's head." 

"We do not aim to disparage or ignore these as 
facts in our language, but find fault with the large 
space they fiU. The young student who speaks En- 
glish already practices by far the greater part of these 
lessons. He knows them unconsciously; he uses 
them before he has heard of Grammar, and as they 
belong to the phonetic system of the language, they 
are unavailing until a philosophical inquiry and anal- 
ysis come in. Separated from their governing princi- 
ples, they are barren, and the time for those principles 
has not yet arrived for the student. The same Gram- 
mar appropriates thirty pages to prosody and fifty- 
five to rhetoric. Without wishing to impugn the 
merit of these, we remark that as such subjects 
(though of course parts of Grammar in its wide ap- 
plication) are always made distinctive studies in the 
department of Belles Lettres, they needlessly aug- 
ment an elementary treatise on Grammar, The 
subjoined compendium excludes both, and thus is 
enabled to be brief. 

An additional merit of this work is its vindication 
of both the lexical and grammatical elements of our 
mother tongue. It enjoins the use of Teutonic words 
and structure, as inherently vigorous — as impressive, 
because they are home-born to us ; and quotations 



PKEFACE. XI 

from many writers are brought forward to show the 
mighty earnestness and strength of those authors 
who excel in Saxon idioms above those who employ 
a foreign diction. Professor De Yere, in his recent 
interesting contribution to philology, remarks, ^' What 
powerful aid have English authors derived from an 
intimate knowledge and judicious use of that portion 
of then' vernacular which was formed by their An- 
glo-Saxon forefathers in their savage but poetical 
age. They knew that the words which fall first 
upon our ears from the lips of our mother, the words 
that we hear in the home of our childhood and amidst 
the sports of om' youth, express the earliest and dear- 
est sensations, and awaken in the heart of the hearer 
the strongest and most powerful feelings of our na- 
tm^e. Hence, English style is impressive, English 
poets are popular, and English orators successful, in 
proportion as they employ words which constitute 
the language of our home and our heart." 

The old-fashioned fairness of character, the straight- 
forward saying of what we mean, caUing things by 
their right names, are greatly promoted by the free 
use of om' ancestral manly words. Indeed, it may 
almost be laid down as a principle in our literature, 
that in proportion to the bulk of foreign idiom used, 
so do TNT^iters tend to sophistry in their reasonings ; 
or (as we may state it perhaps more correctly) that 
the writers who are most decidedly infidel and so= 



Xli PREFACE. 

pMstical are also most markedly characterized by 
their copious use of foreign idioms. Bolingbroke, 
Hume, Gibbon, and Macaulay are note-worthy in- 
stances of this. This compendium freely acknowl- 
edges the advantage of enriching our language by 
additions from abroad, but it subordinates the matter 
thus gained, and justly gives precedence to our early 
home-sprung idioms. 

Another excellence of this book is seen in its treat- 
ment of the auxiliary verbs. Many nice shades of 
meaning depend on their right use, but the grounds 
of such use are seldom sufficiently explained in our 
elementary grammars ; and yet, perhaps, in few par- 
ticulars does the character of a people's mind reveal 
itself so markedly as in their auxiliary parts of 
speech, and our language is rich in them. 

The American editor has made some verbal 
changes, has added illustrations, corrected a few 
statements respecting the ethnological relation of the 
Greek language ; has explained more fully the na- 
ture and import of the auxiliaries ; has given a fuller 
conjugation of the verb, fuller lists of idiomatic pe- 
culiarities of number and gender, and of irregular 
verbs, and has added a few questions which may 
facilitate the use of the book. Assured by experience 
of its value, he respectfully submits it to the public. 

J. G. B« 

New York Free Acadeim/. 



IJ[TRODUCTION. 



It has been rather a favorite notion among learned 
^vriters, that the English language has no grammar 
peculiar to itself; and that it can be written correctly- 
only by applying to it the rules of the Latin. The 
result has been a good deal of Latinized English ; but 
general opinion has not sanctioned this : a Latinized 
style is not accounted a good one, and the writers 
who keep the closest to the idioms of their mother 
tongue, are by general consent placed among the 
masters whom the English student must take as his 
best instructors.* 

There, are, indeed, principles of grammar which 
must inhere in all languages, for all those who speak 
and act must name things and characterize actions: 
they must describe what has happened as having 
done so in the past or the present time, or as likely 
to occur in the future ; they must state whether the 
individual was the actor or the sufferer ; they must 
consider things in their different relations to each 
other. But all nations do not agree hi the minor 
manifestations of these broad grammatical distinc- 

* Defoe, Swift, Addison, Soutliey, have been held models of 
good prose writing — they are very different in style, but they 
all agree in one thing: they eschew as much as possible all 
Latinized phrases, words, and arrangement of sentences.. 



14 INTEODUCTION. 

tions ; and thus arise the peculiar idioms, and con- 
sequently grammars, of different languages : few have 
more of these peculiarities than the English, as is 
evident from the acknowledged difficulty which for- 
eigners find in acquiring it — few therefore can more 
need a distinct grammar, in which these peculiari- 
ties are clearly laid down. 

It is almost impossible that a language should have 
its origin amidst ci\alization and refinement ; it has 
generally been the rude and rough expression of the 
passions and feelings of a people no less rude and 
rough ; and, without going into a discussion of the 
different theories respecting the origin of language, 
I think I may safely assume that the Jirst speech was 
not likely to be either written, or very abundant. 
We invent terms to meet the want of the moment ; 
what we have never seen or done, of course we have 
no terms for, and hence the scanty vocabulary of the 
poor, even in our own times ; for, even if taught the 
use and meaning of more words, they generally for- 
get them, because they have no need for them in 
their every-day life. The wants of man in his first 
state were simple ; his social relations few ; and his 
language must have been in some degree propor- 
tioned to his state of life. 

It has been often remarked that the barbarian is 
generally poetic in his language ; but it has not been 
at the same time remarked that the very paucity of 
his language is the cause of this. When definition 
begins, poetry ends. The barbarian has no terms 
wherewith to designate new objects, or to express a 



IKTRODUCTION, 15 

new train of tlioiiglit, and he is thus forced to use 
metaphor instead of precise description. The ani- 
mal with which the speaker is familiar is the type 
in his mind of the quality w^hich chiefly distinguishes 
it ; and, by a natural association, the man who evinces 
such a quality is called by its name : thus, in the 
language of some of the oldest writings we possess, 
Judah is a lion's w^help ; Issachar is a strong ass ; 
Dan shall be a serpent in the. way ; Naphtali is a 
hind let loose, etc.,* and these forcible and appropri- 
ate metaphors are poetry of the highest order ; but 
they are likewise the expressions most natural to the 
speaker. The writings of the Old Testament afford 
some of the oldest, and at the same time the finest 
poetry that has reached our days ; and it is impos- 
sible to read these, wdthout seeing that the expres- 
sions are such as must necessarily occur to persons 
living in an early and simple state of society ; nay, 
that it would have been unnatural to them to speak 
other^vise. The song of Deborah, one of the noblest 
lyrics ever composed, has all the character of the 
rude age it belongs to; but how striking is what 
may almost be called the pictorial effect of the ad- 
dress to those "who ride on white asses;" though 
to the speaker, probably, this was but the readiest, 
or perhaps the only w^ay of designating the leader^ 
of the people, at a time when their office was not 
marked by a distinctive name. 

If, then, some of the finest specimens of poetic ex- 

* See Gen. xlix. Homer is equally free in the application 
of the names of animals to characterize the qualities of men. 



16 INTRODUCTION. 

pression result from the very simplicity and paucity 
of a rude people's vocabulary, we may form some 
notion of what really constitutes a forcible and good 
style. The parent race, unpolished as it was, left to 
its more polished descendants the legacy of a lan- 
guage which served the common purposes of life, 
and which necessarily partook of the character of 
the country and climate under whose influences it 
was formed : the increasing wants of science and 
civilization obliged their posterity to borrow from 
other sources to supply the deficiency, but the an- 
cient language will still be that which best applies 
to the earth, and the sky, and the seasons, of what 
the Germans very appropriately term, "the father- 
land ;"* and he who would speak to the heart and 
feelings of his countrymen, must speak in a lan- 
guage which is congenial to them, which is knit up 
with their earliest habits, which finds its metaphor 
in objects familiar to their senses ; and must not 
dread to use an expression of the people, if it be 
forcible and appropriate. The art of good writing 
(and a very difiicult one it is) consists in knowing 
how much of the expressions of our forefathers ought 
to be preserved — how much reformed or abandoned. 
And it is the business of the grammarian to assist 
the judgment in this : but still much remains to be 
done by the taste of the writer ; for the grammarian 

* It is possible that we may trace, in the modification of this 
term in the English, the difference between the two climates; 
we say, "the mother country," and certainly this expression 
conveys the idea of a softer nurse than the more rugged '•'• father^ 
land" of the German.. 



INTRODUCTION. 1 ? 

can only adduce examples of good and bad style, 
and point out what he conceives to be the reason 
why it is so : but who can meet by rule all the exi- 
gencies and impulses of forcible, terse, and varied 
expression ^ 

It should always be remembered, when we be- 
gin to write, that letters are but a perpetuation of 
spoken words : the earliest records of most coun- 
tries, even their philosophy and science, were recited^ 
not written ; and though a book is useful for refer- 
ence, we all know how much more pleasantly we 
acquire knowledge from the conversation of a per- 
son who thoroughly understands his subject. He 
who would write well, then, must endeavor to attain 
the ease of colloquial expression in narrative, or in 
letter writing ; or the forcible expression of passion 
in poetry and oratory ; and, in order to do this, he 
must not be too free in using words of foreign deri- 
vation ; for in speaking we seldom use such if na- 
tive ones will serve our purpose, and very rarely do 
we use any inversion in the arrangement of our sen- 
tences. 

The deterioration of a language usually occurs 
during the first steps of its (so called) social refine- 
ment ; when men begin to despise the habits of the 
people as vulgar, and place their language in the 
same category. The commonality do not speak by 
rule; they violate the concords; they misapply words 
newly introduced ; and their more refined coun- 
trymen scoff at their blunders, and think it a part 
of liberal education to root out as far as possible 
B 



18 INTRODUCTION. 

the common expressions of their forefathers, and 
substitute those of the nation which has been the 
leader of civilization in their time. Thus the Eo- 
mans, in the actual decline of their greatness, but 
in their apparent advance in refinement, were fond 
of Greek expressions : thus Europe clung to Latin 
as the language of literature, and thus in later years 
French exercised a deteriorating influence over En- 
glish. Then comes a reaction — the terse, strong ex- 
pression of older writers begins to be appreciated by 
a juster taste, and men try to imitate them, and fan- 
cy they may thus attain to something like their ex- 
cellence. But neither is this the right course ; for 
those older authors wrote as they spoke, exercising 
merely a just taste in selecting the most appropri- 
ate phrases. If the colloquial language be changed 
(and we know that it is), then we shall not charm 
our readers by returning to a phraseology no longer 
familiar ; and we should imitate the great writers of 
other ages, not so much in their actual expressions, 
as in the good taste and sound judgment which they 
showed in their choice of them. A good style is 
colloquial English purified from all grammatical in- 
accuracy, and from any familiarity which would not 
sort well with the subject. The judgment of the 
writer is shown in his just appreciation of this last 
point. 

I would refer to the expressions which Shaks- 
peare puts in the mouth of Macduff, when he re- 
ceives the news of the slaughter of his wife and 
children, as an instance wliere the deepest pathos is 



INTRODUCTION. 19 

attained by excessive simplicity of phrase and meta- 
phor. 

My children too ? — 

exclaims the bereaved father, after a pause when we 
learn from the expression of the prince that his grief 
had been too great for utterance ; and in a moment 
more, after hearing farther details, 

And I must be from thence ! — ■ 

My wife killed too ?— 

Rosse. I have said. 

Mac, He has no children. — All my pretty ones ? 
Did you say all?— O hell-kite !— All? 
What, all my pretty chickens, and their dam. 
At one. full swoop? 

Mai, Dispute it like a man. 

Mac, I shall do so ; 

But I must also feel it as a man ; 
I can not but remember such things were, 
That were most precious to me. 

There is scarcely a word here that is not in the 
most familiar use, and the metaphor is that of a 
farm-yard ; yet the heart goes with every word ; for 
we feel that such sorrow can not spare thought 
enough to pick out far-fetched expressions. 

The present age has to contend with two faults in 
style: on the one hand, there is an inclination, in 
graver works, to imitate the inversions and rounded 
periods of the Latin, which are quite foreign to the 
genius and character of the English language : on 
the other, most of our poets and dramatists have set 
up the age of Elizabeth as a pattern of excellence. 



20 INTKODUCTION. 

and used antiquated expressions which are not fa- 
iiiiiiar to us, and therefore sound quaint and odd, 
und thus impair the effect they were intended to 
produce. The exact middle way is not often taken ; 
and it is generally admitted, though few set about to 
explain the reason why, that a good idiomatic En- 
glish style is rare in these days, and that rivals to 
Shakspeare, to Bacon, and to Jeremy Taylor are not 
to be found. 

Before closing this part of the subject, it may be 
well to give some proof that the observations on the 
use of our Saxon forefathers' language are well found- 
ed, and that our best writers make such large use of 
it, that the goodness of a style may almost be meas- 
ured by the proportion of words of Teutonic deriva- 
tion which it contains. In the following examples 
all the words not belonging to the Teutonic family 
are marked in italics. 



TRANSLATORS OF THE BIBLE. 

Genesis, xliii., verses 25, 26, 27, 28. 

And they made ready the present against Joseph came at 
noon : for they heard that they should eat bread there. 

And when Joseph came home, they brought him the pres- 
ent which was in their hand into the house, and bowed them- 
selves to him to the earth. 

And he asked them of their welfare, and said, Is ycnr 
father well, the old man of whom ye spake ? Is he } et 
alive ? 

And they answered. Thy servant our father is in good 
health, he is yet alive. And they bowed down their heads, 
and made obeisance. 



:troduction. 21 

/. Sanmel, chapter iv., verses 7, 8, 9, 10. 

And the Philistines were afraid, for they said, God is 
come into the camp. And they said, Woe unto us I for 
there hath not been such a thing heretofore. 

Woe unto us ! who shall delivei- us out of the hand of 
these mighty Gods? these are the Gods that smote the 
Egyptians with all the plagues in the 's\-ilderness. 

Be strong and quit yom'selves like men, O ye Plulistmes, 
that ye be not sei^cants unto the Hebrews, as they have been 
to you : quit yourselves like men, and fight. 

And the Philistines fought, and Israel was smitten, and 
they fled eveiy man into his tent ; and there was a very 
great slaughter; for there fell oi Israel thirty thousand foot- 
men. 

Job, chapter v., verses 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. 

Although affliction cometh not forth of the dust, neither 
doth trouble spiing out of the gi'ound ; 

Yet man is born unto trouble as the sparks fly upward. 

I would seek unto God, and unto God would I commit 
my cause; 

Which doeth gTcat things and v/nsear citable ; marvellous 
things without number: 

Wlio giveth rain upon the earth, and sendeth waters 
upon the fields. 

Psalm xxiii. 

The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want. 

He maketh me to lie down in green pastures ; he leadeth 
me beside the still waters. 

He restoreth my soul; he leadeth me in the paths of 
righteousness for his name's sake. 

Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of 
death, I will fear no evil : for thou art with me ; thy rod 
and thy staff they comfort me. 

Thou jDy^eparest a table before me in the presence of mine 
enemies: thou anointest my head with oil; my cup runneth 
over. 



22 INTRODUCTION, \ 

Surely goodness and merci/ shall follow me all the days ; 

of my life; and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for t 

ever. \ 

Isaiah, chapter xiv., verses 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. : 

The Lord hath broken the staff of the wicked, and the J 

sceptre of the rulers. \ 

He who smote the people in wrath with a continual stroke, ■] 

he that imled the nations in anger, is persecuted and none I 

hindereth. j 

The whole earth is at rest and is quiet; they break forth ] 

into singing. • 

Yea the fir trees rejoice at thee, and the cedars of Lebanon, | 

saying, Since thou art laid down, no feller is come up ] 

against us. \ 

Hell from beneath is moved for thee to meet thee at thy ' 

coming : it stirreth up the dead for thee, even all the chief \ 
ones of the earth; it hath raised up from their thrones all 

the kings of the nations. \ 

All they shall speak, and say unto thee, Art thou also i 

become weak as we ? art thou become like unto us ? ,; 

SHAKSPEARE. | 

Tempest. — Act III. , ^ -'"' 

I do not know .! 

One of my sex; no woman's /ace ?-e?«e??i&er, ; 

Save, from my glass, mine own ; nor have I seen i 

More that I may call men, than you, good friend, . l 

And my dear father : how features are abroad, ' \ 

I am skill-less of; but, by my modesty I 

(The jeivel in my dower), I would not wish ] 
Any companion in the world but you ; 
Nor can imagination form a shape, 

Besides yourself, to like of; but I prattle ; 

Something too wildly, and my father's precepts ? 
I therein do forget. 

Two Gentlemen of Verona.— Act II, j 

Not for the world : why, man, she is mine own % { 

And I as rich in having such 2i jewels ^ ,\ 



INTRODUCTION. 23 

As twenty seas, if all their sand were pearl, 
The Avater nectar and the rocks pure gold. 
I'orgiA'e me, that I do not dream on thee, 
Eecause thou seest me dote upon my love. 
My foolish rivals that her father likes. 
Only for his possessions are so huge. 
Is gone with her along ; and I must after. 
For love, thou know'st, is full oi jealousy, 

Tivelfth NighL~Act IV. 

This is the air ,- that is the glorious sun ; 
This pearl she gave me ; I do feel't and see't ; 
And though 'tis wonder that enwraps me thus^ 
Yet 'tis not madness. Where's Antonio then ? 
I could not find him at the Elejjliant ; 
Yet there he was ; and there I found this credit, 
That he did range the town to seek me out. 

King John.—^Act III. 

The sun's o'ercast with blood: fair day, adieu! 
Which is the side that I must go withal ? 
I am with both; each army hath a hand; 
And in their rage^ I having hold of both. 
They w^hirl asunder, and dismember me. 
Husband ! I can not pray that thou may'st win ; 
Uncle! I needs must/>7'a^ that thou may'st lose; 
rather ! I may not wish t\\Q fortune thine ; 
Grandam ! I will not wish thy wishes thrive : 
Whoever wins, on that side shall I lose ; 
Assured loss, before the match be played. 

Henry IV.—Xst Part, Act I. 

My liege, I did deny no prisoners: 
But, I remember, when the fight was done; 
When I was dry with i-age and extreme toil, 
Breathless and faint, leaning upon my sword. 
Came there a certain lord, neat, trimly dress' d, 
Fresh as a bridegroom; and his chin, new reaped, 
Show'd like a stubble land at harvest-home. 



24 INTRODUCTION. 

Henry IV. — 1st Part^ Act L 

— for lie made me mad 
To see him shine so brisk and smell so sweet, 
And talk so like a ivaiting gentle\Yom.£m 
Of guns and drums and wounds (God save the mark !), 
And telling me the sovereign'st thing on earth 
Was parmaceti, for an inward bruise ; 
And that it was great pity, so it was, 
That villanous saltpetre should be digg'd 
Out of the bowels of the harmless earth, 
Which many a good tall fellow had destroyed 
So cowardly ; and, but for these vile guns, 
He would himself have been a soldier, 

Henry VIIL—Act IIL 

Earewell, a long farewell to all my greatness. 
This is the staie of man ; to-day he j)uts forth 
The tender leaves of hope, to-morrow blossoms, 
And bears his blushing honors thick upon him : 
The third day comes a frost, a killing frost ; 
And (when he thinks, good easy man, full surely 
His greatness is a ripening) nips his root, 
And then he falls as I do. 

MILTON. 

Paradise Lost, — Book IV. 

As when ?[, prowling wolf , 
Whom hunger drives to seek new haunt iov prey^ 
Watching where shepherds pen their flocks at eve 
In hurdled cotes amid the field secure, 
Leaps o'er t\\Q fence with ease into the fold; 
Or as a thief, bent to unhoard the cash 
Of some rich burgher, whose substantial doors, 
Cross-barr'd and bolted fast, fear no assault. 
In at the window climbs, or o'er the tiles: 
So clomb this first grand thief into God's fold ; 
So since into his church lewd hirelings climb. 



INTRODUCTIOX, 25 

Paradise Lost, Book XII. 
Thev looking back, all the eastern side beheld 
Of Paradise, so late their happy seat, 
Wav'd over by th^t flaming brand ; the gate 
"With dreadful /ofces throng'd, and fiery arms: 
Some natural tears they dropt, but wip'd them soon; 
The world was all before them, where to choose 
Their place of i^est, and Providence their guide: 
They, hand in hand, with wandering steps and slow, 
Through Pden took their solitary way. 

BISHOP JEREMY TAYLOR. 

And after all this add a continual, a fervent, a hearty, a 
neYei'-ceasing prai/er for thy children ; ever remembering, when 
they beg a blessing, that God hath put much of theiv fortune 
into your hands, and a transient, formed " God bless you," will 
not outweigh the load of a great vice, and the curse that scat- 
ters from thee by virtual contact, and by the chcumels of rela- 
tion, if thou be a vicious i^erson. ^ Nothing can issue from thy 
fountain but bitter waters. 

Sermon on the entail of curses cut off. 

But there are a great many despisers ; all they that live 
in their sins, they that have more blessings than they can 
reckon Jiours in their lives, that are courted by the Divine/a- 
vor, and wooed to salvation, as if mankind were to give and 
not to receive so great a blessing; all they that answer not to 
so friendly summons, they are despisers of God's mercies. 
Serm. God's method in curing sinners. 

DEFOE. 

Well, says I, honest man, that is a gi'eat mercy, as things 
go now with the poor. But how do you live then, and how 
are you kept from the dreadful calamity that is now upon us 
all ? Why, sir, says he, I am a waterman, and there is my 
boat, says he ; and the boat sei^ves me for a house. I work 
in it in the day, and I sleep in it in the night, and what I 
get, I lay it dov^Ti upon that stone, says he, showing: m.e a 



26 INTEODUCTION. 

great broad stone on the other side of the street, a good 
way from his house ; and then, says he, I hallo and call to 
them, till I make them hear, and they come and fetch it. 

Gr^eat Plague of London, 

After this he pressed me earnestly and in the most affec- 
tionate manner, not to play the young man, or precipitate my- 
self into miseyies which nature and the station of life I was 
born in seem to hax e p7^ovided against ; that I was under no 
necessity of seeking my bread ; that he would do well for me 
and endeavor to enter me. fairly into the station of life 
which he had been just recommending to me, and that if I 
was not very happy and easy in the world, it must be my 
mere fate or fault that must hinder it; and that he should 
have nothing to answer for, having thus discharged his duty, 
in warning me against measur^es which he knew would be to 
my hurt. — Mobinson Crmsoe, 

SWIFT. 

Wisdom is a fox, who after long hunting will at last cost 
you i\\Q pains to dig out. 'Tis a cheese, which by how much 
the richer, has the thicker, the homelier, and the coarser coat, 
and whereof to injudicious palate, the maggots are the best. 
'Tis a sack posset, wherein the deeper you go, you will find 
it the sw^eeter. But then, lastly, 'tis a nut, which, unless 
you choose ^\\t\\ judgment, may cost you a tooth, and pay you 
with nothing but a worm. 

ADDISON. 

It is the great arf and secret of Christianity, if I may ^ise 
the phrase, to manage our actions so to the best advantage, and 
direct them in such a manner, that every thing we do may 
turn to account at that great Day when every thing we have 
done will be set before us.* In order to give this considera- 
tion its full weight, we may cast all our actions under the 

* It may be noticed here, that almost all of the words of this 
extract which are not Teutonic are Norman-French. The use 
of this class of words will be found characteristic of Addison. 
They form an elegant, but not a forcible style. 



HsTRODUCTlON. 27 

division of such as are in themselves either good, e^'il, or in- 
different. If we divide our intentions after the same manner, 
and consider them with regard to our actions, we may discover 
that great a7t and secret of religion which I have here men- 
tioned, — Spectator, 

POPE. 

Shut, shut the door, good John ! fatigued, I said, 

Tie up the knocker, say Pm sick, Pm dead. _ 

The dogstar 7^ages ; nay, 'tis past a doubt — 

All Bedlam or Parnassus is let out. 

Fire in each eye, and joapers in each hand, 

They rave, recite, and maddeii round the land. 

"What walls can guard me, or what shades can hide, 

They pierce my thickets, through my grot they glide ; 

By land, by water, they renew the charge. 

They stop the chariot, and they board the harge. 

Ep, to Dr. Arhuthnot, 

BYEON. 

Day glimmers o'er the dying and the dead, 
The cloven cuirass, and the helmless head ; 
The war-horse, masterless, is on the earth. 
And that last gasp hath burst his bloodj' girth. 
And near, yet quivering with what life remained, 
The heel that urged him, and the hand that reined ; 
And some too near that rolling torrent lie. 
Whose waters mock the lip of those that die. — Lara, 

It is the hush of night, and all between 
Thy margin and the mountains, dusk, yet clear^ 
Mellow'd and mingling, yet distinctly seen. 
Save darken'd Jura, whose capp'd heights appear 
Precipitously steep ; and, drawing near. 
There breathes a liYmg fragrance from the shore, 
Oi flowers j^t fresh with childhood; en the ear 
Drops the light drip of the suspended oar. 
Or chirps the grass-hopper one good-night carol more. 

Childe Harold, 



28 tNTROBUCTION. 

Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll! 
Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain. 
Man marks the earth with ruin — his control _ 

Stops with the shore; upon the ivSit^Yj plain 
The wrecks are all thy deed, nor doth remain 
A shadow of man's ravage, save his own, 
When for a moment, like a drop of rain, 
He sinks into thy depths with bubbling groan, 
Without a grave, unknell'd, uncoffirCd, and unknown. 

Childe Harold, 

SOUTHEY, 

In Mr. Bacon's parish, the vicarage^ though humble as the 
benefice itself, was the neatest. The cottage in which he 
and Margaret passed their childhood, had been remarkable 
for that comfort which is the result and the reward of order 
and neatness, and when the reunion which blessed them 
both, rendered the remembrance of those years delightfid, they 
returned in this respect to the way in which they had been 
trained up, practiced the economy which they had learned 
there, and loved to think how entirely their course of life, in 
all its circumstances, would be after the heart of that person, 
if she could behold it, whose memory they both with equal 
affection cherished. After his bereavement, it was one of the 
widower's pensive pleasures to keep every thing in the same 
state as when Margaret was living. Nothing was neglected 
that she used to do, or would have done. ThQ flowers were 
tended as carefully as if she were still to enjoy th^ir fra- 
grance and their beauty ; and the birds, w^ho came in winter 
for their crumbs, were fed as duly for her sake as they had 
formerly been by her hands. — The Doctor. 

COLERIDGE. 

Maid of my love, sweet Genevieve, 
In beauty'' s light you glide along ; 
Your eye is like the star of eve, 
And sweet your voice as seraph's song. 
Yet not your heavenly beauty gives 
This heart with passion soft to glow \ 



INTROBUCTIOiS. 29 

Within your soul a voice there lives ! 
It bids you hear the tale of woe. 
When sinking low the sufferer wan 
Beholds no hand outstretched to save ; 
Fair as the bosom of the swan, 
That rises graceful o'er the wave, 
I've seen your breast with pity heave, 
And therefore love I you, sweet Genevieve I 

In contrast with the foregoing passages, we take 
a few extracts from the works of other standard 
writers. The most hasty examination will show 
that whatever may be their worth on the score of 
an ornate classical style, they can lay little claim to 
the bone and sinew of Saxon English. Hence they 
clo not really please the ear, nor strike the mind, nor 
reach the heart, nearly so readily as the preceding 
quotations ; and there is this diiFerence, that whereas 
the former consist of Gothic forms in seven eighths 
of their whole material, the latter contain only 
three fifths as their share of Saxon or Teutonic 
matter — that is, they contain fifteen fortieths less 
than the other. 

BOLINGBEOKE. 

I might likewise bring several other instances wherein his- 
tory sei^'es to purge the mind of those national partialities and 
prejudices that vre are ajit to contract in our education^ and that 
experience for the most part rather confirms than removes, he- 
cause it is for the most part confined like our education. But 
I apprehend growing too prolix, and shall therefore conclude 
this head by observing, that though an early and proper ap- 
plication to the study of history will contribute extremely to 
keep our minds free from a ridiculous partiality in favor of 
our own country, and a vicious prejudice against otliers, yet 



30 INTRODUCTION. 

the same study will create in us a preference of affection to 
our own country. — National Partiality and Pn 



HUME. 

By banishing vicious luxury, without curing sloth and an 
indifference to others, you only diminish industry in the state, 
and add nothing to men's charity or their generosity. Let 
us therefore rest contented with asserting that two opposite 
vices in a state may be more advantageous than either of 
them alone ; but let us never pronounce vice in itself advan- 
tageous. Is it not very inconsistent for an author to assert in 
one page that moral distinctions are inventions of politicians 
for public interest, and in the next joa^e maintain that v/ce is 
advantageous to the public? And indeed it seems, upon 
any system of morality, little less than a contradiction in <^erws 
to talk of a ^;^ce which is in general beneficial to society. 

Estimate of the Effects of Luxury, 

GIBBON. 

In the familiar offices of life he scrupulously adhered to the 
grave and ceremonious politeness of his country: his respectful 
attention to the rich and powerful was dignified by his ccwz- 
descension and affability to the poorest citizens of Mecca ; the 
frankness of his manner concealed the artifice of his views; 
and the habits of courtesy were imputed to personal friendship 
or universal benevolence. His memory was capacious and re- 
tentive, his wit easy and^5oaa/, his imagination sublime, his 
judgment clear, rapid, and decisive. He possessed the courage 
both of thought and acf fo?z ; and although his designs might 
gradually expand with his success, the first zJea which he e?2- 
tertained of his divine mission bears the stamp of an original 
and superior genius. — Character of Mahomet. 

SAMUEL JOHNSON. 

I consider this mighty structure as a monument of the zwsw/1 
ficiency of human enjoyments. A king, whose power is w?z- 
limited, and whose treasures surmount all rea/ and imaginary 
wants, is compelled to solace, by the erection of a pyramid, the 
satiety of dominion and tastelessness oi pleasures, and to amwse 



INTRODUCTiOK, 3 1 

the tediousness of declining life, by seeing thousands laboring 
without end, and one stone, for no purpose^ laid upon an- 
other. Whoever thou art, that, not content with a moderate 
condition, iniaginest hapinness in roi/al magnificence, and dream- 
est that command or riches can feed the appetite of novelty 
with peipetual gi-atifications, siu^vey the pyramids, and confess 
thy folly. 

MACAULAY. 

Here Thucydides is deficient. The deficiency, indeed, is 
not discreditable to him. It was the inevitable effect of cir- 
cumstances. It was in the nature of things necessary that in 
some part of its progress through politiccd science, the human 
mind should reach that point which it attained in his time. 
Knowledge advances by steps, and not by leaps. The ax- 
ioms of an English debating club, would have been startling 
and mysterious paradoxes to the most enlightened statesniQn 
of Athens. 

The ancient philosophers did not neglect natural science; 
but they did not cultivate it for the purpose of increasing the 
power, and ameliorating the condition of man. The taint of 
barrenness had spread from ethiccd to physical speculations. 
Seneca wrote largely on natural philosophy, and magnified the 
importance of that study. But why ? Not because it tended 
to assuage suffering, to multiply the conveniences of life, to ex- 
?ewc/ the empire of man over the material world ; but 5o/e^ 
because it tended to raise the mind above low cares ; to 5e/9- 
ara^e it from the body, to exercise its subtlety in the solution of 
rery obscure questions. 

SHAEON TURNER. 

At this happy pmod of the world, we can not reflect on the 
idolatry of ancient times, without astonishment at the infatua- 
tion which has so inveterately, in various regions clouded the 
human mind. We feel, indeed, that it is impossible to con- 
template the grand canopy of the zmiverse, to desci'y theplanets 
moving in gove?med or-der ; to find comets darting from system 
to system in an o?:^^;^, of which a .7?ace almost incalculable is 



32 IKTKOBUCTION, 

the diameter; to discover constellations beyond consiiludions 
in endless multiplicity^ and to have indications of the light of 
others whose full beam of splendor has not yet reached us : 
we feel it impossible to meditate on these innumerable theatres 
of existence, without feeling with awe that this amazing mag- 
nificence of nature announces an Author tremendously great. 
But it is very difficult to conceive how the lessons of the skies 
should have taught that localizing idolatry which their trans- 
cendent gran^deur and almost infinite extent seem expressly cal- 
culated to destroy. — History of the Anglo-Saxons. 

If we glance on tlie words in italics, we see why 
the latter are so stiff and so un-English in their 
style ; they have flouted their good old mother- 
tongue, and she has had her revenge. It would be 
easy to multiply instances of faulty composition, for 
unfortunately they are too common ; but it would 
be a thankless task, and would fill a space which 
this small treatise can ill afford. A passing remark 
may be allowed on Lord Byron — that few writers 
are so completely English as he. Perhaps the ad- 
mirers of his works have hardly been aware of the 
source from which he drew his forcible expression — 
or guessed that much of the charm of his style was 
its thoroughly Saxon character ; his imitators un- 
doubtedly have been far from divining this: it is 
true that passages may be found where he has pur- 
posely availed himself of the rich variety which En- 
glish affords by its naturalization of words of all 
languages; but his diction is habitually idiomatic: 
witness his letters. 

And here the grammarian must pause. The nice 
taste which suits the style to the subject — which al- 
ways selects the most appropriate word, and is easy 



INTRODUCTION. 33 

or forcible as the occasion requires, can not be im- 
parted by rule — it must be gained by the thought 
and study of the writer himself ; and the only rules 
to be given are, never to let an unweighed expres- 
sion pass, but to re-write even a letter of compli- 
ment, if on reading it over, it appears that it might 
have been put in better phrase ; to watch what dis- 
pleases our ear in the writings of others, and avoid 
it; to observe what pleases particularly, and ana- 
lyze if possible the causes of the pleasure it affords, 
so as to be able ourselves to reproduce those causes ; 
and all this from youth up. At first, the judgment 
may be faulty—the taste false ; but time and experi- 
ence will correct these errors, and the man who has 
early made up his mind to write and speak well, even 
if he do not immediately attain his object, will rarely 
fail, by the time he reaches mature age, to have 
formed a correct taste, and a good style. 
C 



THE GEOUNDS OF THE GENEEAL PEIN- 
CIPLES OF GEAMMAE. 

The term grammar is derived from the Greek 
word ypafifia, signifying a writing or letter ; but the 
English term is used to express that established ar- 
rangement of language, which nations use as the 
best for conveying the meaning of the speaker or 
the writer. Each nation varies this shghtly, but the 
great distinctions, founded on the nature of things, 
subsist every where, and these distinctions may be 
reduced to rule, and form a universal grammar, 
which will be applicable to all languages. These 
will be presently considered more at length ; it may 
suffice here, to give as an example of them, the dif- 
ferent relations in which persons and things stand to 
each other, and the different times in which actions 
may take place. 

It is clear that in all communities things are pos- 
sessed, given, bought and sold, etc., and where these 
relations exist, a method of expressing such relation 
must be invented ; and even if unexpressed, the re- 
lation is not the less real. The Latin expresses this 
by putting the name of the possessor and the recipi- 
ent respectively in the genitive and dative case — 
that of the thing possessed or given, bought or sold, 
in the accusative ; and each of these cases is in gen- 
eral marked by a different termination ; but even 



ON THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAJMIMAR, 35 

where it is not so, the grammatical distinction is 
the same ; the loerson is not less the possessor, even 
if his name undergo no change in speaking of him 
in that relation ; the tiling is equally bought, etc., 
whether the termination of its name remains the 
same or not ; for among all nations, and in all coun- 
tries, the thing which is the subject of an action 
and not its cause, must be in the accusative case, 
or, in other words, it stands in the relation of patient 
or undergoer of the action. 

It is equally clear that when things are possessed, 
or given, bought or sold, the action must be either 
going on and therefore "present^ as in the case of pos- 
session ; or past, or future ; but this must generally 
be subject to a variety of modifications, which give 
occasion to the various modes and times, or tenses, 
of the action or verb, and these definite relations of 
things and times and modes of action form the founda- 
tion of all grammar. 

Languages may be divided into families, each fam- 
ily having a certain resemblance to the common pa- 
rent running through all the members of it ; and not 
unfrequently even history is glad to supply its de- 
ficiencies by the aid of this family likeness, which is 
the unmistakable sign of former connection between 
the races. 

It is not my object in this small work to go into 
this part of the philosophy of language, which would 
require much more space than can be afforded ; 
omitting, therefore, the inquiry how the grammar of 
the northern tongues gained its resemblance to the 



36 ON THE GENERAL PEINCIPLES OF GRAIMMAR. 

Greek, I shall simply observe that the nations both 
of the north and south of Europe* have many gram- 
matical forms in common w^ith that language ; these 
two great divisions however are collateral, not lineal 
descendants. The type of all the Teutonic dialects 
would probably be found in some ancient one now 
lost ; that of the nations of the south of Europe is 
in great measure the Latin, which fortunately we 
retain the knowledge of. 

Eome was for some ages the metropolis of the 
Christian world, and the seat of the chief science 
which it then possessed, and thus it happened that 
the language of Eome was studied by the Teutones, 
no less than it had been by the provinces, in the 
time of its imperial government, and thus it came to 
pass that a "grammar school," j)ar excellence^ was a 
school where the Latin language was taught. From 
that time — when the barbarous vernacular dialects 
were held unworthy the notice of a scholar — down 
to the present era, strange changes have taken place, 
yet the learned world has not yet emancipated it- 
self from the trammels of Eome ; and English, in 
classical hands, is too often made to wear the toga, 
however ill it may befit. Indeed, unless the prestige 
of past ages still clung closely to the Latin, it would 
be difficult to say why its grammar has been chosen 

* From the nations of the north probably the Slavonic tribes 
must be excepted, at least they do not own the same descent as 
the Teutonic; and in the south the Biscayan and some other 
dialects offer anomalies : the assertion, therefore, must be con- 
sidered as a very general one, which is intended to approximate 
to the truth, rather than as one to be taken in a strict sense. 



ON THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. 87 

as that which is to introduce our youth to the prin- 
ciples of language ; for the Greek offers many points 
of resemblance to our own tongue which are not to 
be found in the Latin. Thus, the article, so freely 
used in all the dialects which have sprung from an 
admixture of the northern tribes, is to be found in 
the Greek, but not in the Latin ; the ablative case, 
wanting in the Teutonic family, is also wanting in 
the Greek, and one farther especial resemblance in 
the grammatical structure of English and Greek, is 
to be found in the use of the genitive case instead 
of the possessive pronoun. His mother, and fi'i'jrrjp 
avT8, are identical in their construction. If then, 
in all families of language, it be desirable to take 
the one most complete in its grammatical arrange- 
ment as a key to the rest, Greek has far the best 
claim to be first taught, both from its rank as* the 
ancestor of both divisions of the European languages, 
and from the greater resemblance which subsists be- 
tween it and the northern dialects. 

As, however, it has not yet thrust Latin from its 
chair, it will be requisite to use them both in eluci- 
dating the principles of grammar, with a view to the 
applying those principles more especially to the for- 
mation of a pure style of English composition. 

But it is not merely in our own language that an 
acquaintance with the general principles of grammar 

* If the author refer to the Greek language in view of its 
highly developed state, when enriched with a precious litera- 
ture, it may be allowed to call it " the ancestor" of the European 
languages ; but if he refer to it in its ethnographical relations, 
his remark is erroneous. 



38 ON THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR. 

is useful ; the study of foreign languages is greatly 
facilitated by it; for having laid down certain dis- 
tinctions which exist in the very nature of things, 
We need not go over them any more, and therefore 
have to apply ourselves only to the peculiarities of 
the tongue we would learn, which in general are 
but few, and are easily remembered from their pau- 
city ; whereas, if we have to go over the whole sys- 
tem of grammar with every fresh language, it be- 
comes a labor of no ordinary kind. 

Let us suppose, on the contrary, that we have 
taken the Greek grammar as a sort of general type 
of that of the European languages ; when we would 
acquire one of these, we shall have to ask ourselves 
first a few general questions ; as. Has it, besides the 
two necessary numbers of singular and plural^ also 
a dualf No. Has it, besides the requisite active 
and passive voice of the verb, also a middle? No. 
Has it a distinct termination to mark the cases, etc. 1 
The peculiarity of each language in these respects 
will be a thing to be examined and remembered ; 
and thus, by questioning ourselves through the vari-. 
ous parts of grammatical construction, we shall easily 
detect those which require especial attention, and by 
fixing them in our minds, find that we have mastered 
at once the most difficult part of all foreign lan- 
guages — namely, the idiom. 

I will now endeavor to show what are those great 
distinctions which may be said to form a system of 
universal grammar, and whereon they are based. 



UNIVEESAI. GEAJMIMAE. 

PAItTS OF SPEECH. 

I. The different -svords used between man and 
man for the commnnication of ideas necessarily di- 
vide themselyes into different classes, called techni- 
cally •'*' parts of speech," T^'hich must exist in all lan- 
guages ; for there must be 

1. The name imposed on the thing we mean to 
desigTiate, or Xoux SrBSXAxxrs'E. 

2. The action by which that thing is in some way 
connected with ourselves or others, or Yeeb. 

And these two great classes must find place in every 
language, for they are the foundation of all speech ; 
but as soon as more precision of language is required, 
other classes of words must come into use, for 

3. The thing ^-ill have some quahty or appear^ 
ance by which it is to be distinguished fi^om 
other things of a Hke kind ; and the word ex- 
pressing this quahty or a^Dpeai^ance is called a 
Noun Adjective. 

4. "We seek to shorten the sentence and avoid re- 
petition, by substituting some smaller word in- 
stead of constantly using the noim ; and this 
substitute we call a PEOXorx. 

5. The Verb will have some Hmitation or modifi- 
cation of its action ; and this is an Adverb, 



40 UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. 

6. The thing will stand in some relation to some- 
thing else ; for all that has form must have 
place as regards some other objects, and if this 
be not expressed by an especial inflection in 
the word (which is technically called a case\ 
it is signified by some separate word, which, 
from its usual place as regards the substan- 
tive,* is called a Preposition. 

7. As language becomes more complicated, par- 
ticles which may connect one limb of a sen- 

' tence with another become needful, and these 
are termed from their ofiice Conjunctions. 

8. Passion will be expressed by exclamation, and 
this is called an Interjection. 

n. NUJNIBER. 

All things must be either one or more ; hence the 
distinction in grammar of singular and plural as 
regards number. A few languages have a further 
distinction of a dual number, but this can not be 
considered as a part of universal grammar: it re- 
mains as a peculiarity of the Greek, and likewise 
of some very early tongues; for as families must 
consist in the first place of two only, it would seem 
as if the dual number must be the more ancient. 
A single human pair would have an expression for 
what was done separately or what was done in con- 
junction: the plural number would not be called 
for till society became more complex ; hence in 
later languages which serve the uses of men who 

* As, AFTER the H^^— BEFORE mmi — UNDER restraint. 



ai'e wont to cany on their affairs in relation to 
many, the dual is to be found no longer, being en- 
tirely superseded bv the plural. 

m. Gexdee. 

As all things must be one or more, so in the order 
of creation are they also male, or female, or devoid 
of sex altogether ; and these distinctions of gender 
are termed iviAScrLrsi:, fe^hxixe. and xeutee. By 
what would seem an odd caprice, most nations, an- 
cient and modem, have chosen to bestow a gender 
on things which in reality possess none : in English 
alone is natm^e followed herein, for in our language 
''it is a general rule (except when infi-inged by a 
figure of speech) that no substantive is mascuhne 
but what denotes a male animal substance ; none 
feminine but what denotes a female animal sub- 
stance ; and that where the substance has no sex, 
the substantive is always neuter." 

IV, Case. 

As action can not take place without an agent 
and also a patient, /. ^., a person or thing undergo- 
ing the action, so by virtue of that action, this person 
or thing is placed in some peculiar relation to the 
other. Thus a thing belongs to, or is given to. or 
is taken from, a person, or it is subject to some ac- 
tion, or it is simply named as the agent, or it is 
called to ; and if these varieties of situation are im- 
plied in the word itself, it is said to be in such and 
such a case ; and this relation of things must always 



42 UNIVERSAL GIIAI\I]MAR. 

exist, though in some modern languages the distinc- 
tion by an especial inflection is abandoned. For it 
is clear that when I say / have sold my horse^ I mean 
to imply a different relation between myself and the 
animal from that implied in, my horse has throivn me : 
in the Latin, in the first example, the word horse 
would be in the accusative case with a distinct term- 
ination ; in the English and many modern languages 
the termination is the same ; but as the relation be- 
tween the man and the animal is still understood to 
be expressed in the substantive, without the aid of 
any preposition, it must be considered to be in the 
accusative case, albeit the inflection be wanting. In 
the second example, the horse is the agent, or nom- 
inative case, and the man is in the accusative ; but 
here, even in the English, the case has its peculiar 
form, for me is the accusative case of /. 

V. Voice. 
Whatever action is performed must be either done 
or suffered by some individual ; unless, indeed, by a 
metaphor we attribute agency to an inanimate ob- 
ject ; for we say that the knife cuts^ although we very 
well know that if left untouched it can do nothing 
of the kind. This difference of action makes what 
is technically called a voice^ because, verbum quasi 
vox, the verb as a voice utters the condition of agent 
or patient ; it expresses the fact of doing or suffer- 
ing. Thus, what the man does is expressed by the 
Active Voice; what he suffers by the Passive 
Voice ; a distinction retained in all languages : in 



UNIVERSAL GRAIVEVIAR. 43 

some languages, other voices are added, implying not 
only doing and suffering, but causing to do or suffer, 
etc., as in the Hebrew ; or as sometimes in the JMid- 
dle Voice of the Greek, and in the reflected verb of 
the French, signifying an action of the individual on 
himself. 

VI. Mood. 
An action performed may be done or suffered un- 
der various states of the mind, and therefore in dif- 
ferent manners ; hence arises the distinction of moods 
or modes, which Priscian calls divers affections of 
the soul expressed by a varied declension of the verb. 
Modi sunt diversae inclinationes animi, quas varia 
eonsequitur declinatio verbi. 

Vn. Tense. 

Whatever action is performed must be performed 
in some time, and as relates to the speaker it must 
be either past, present, or future ; and this distinc- 
tion is universally found in the tenses of the verb, 
" which are so many different forms to show, with- 
out altering the principal meaning of a verb, the 
various times in which such meaning may exist." 
These are more or less complicated according to the 
genius of the different nations ; but the broad dis- 
tinction exists every where, with this slight varia- 
tion, that some few do not acknowledge the present 
as a sufficiently durable time to be worthy of an 
especial expression. The Hebrew has only a past 
and a future time, and in this respect is defective. 



44 UNIVERSAL GRAJ^IMAR, 

The notion according to which the present tense is 
excluded is, that " to vvv^^ — " the now^^ is not truly 
time, but rather that which holds the past and the fu- 
ture together^ and is, in general, only time's bounda- 
ry, as being the beginning of one time and the end- 
ing of another. 

yni. CoiMPAiiisON. 

As all qualities are found to exist in more or less 
intensity, so adjectives and adverbs admit of what 
are called degrees of comparison, namely, the posi- 
tive, as wise^ far ; the comparative, as wiser, far- 
ther; the SUPERLATIVE, as imsest, farthest. 

Such are the fundamental distinctions of universal 
grammar, or to speak technically^ such is its acci- 
dence. 

Syntax. 

Universal Grammar has also its Syntax, or mode 
of putting words together, and here again the radi- 
cal rules are broad and comprehensive. The three 
concords, as they are termed by grammarians, are 
well known, and, with a few modifications, are uni- 
versally applicable. They are 

1. That of the nominative and verb ; namely, the 
agreement of the verb, or action, in number and 
person with the agent. Thus, if the nomina- 
tive or agent be /, the verb must agree with 
it by being in the singular number, and the 
first person ; or if the agent be some person or 
thing which is addressed, it is in the second 



UNIVERSAL GRA]\OIAll. 45 

Ijerson ; or if it be some person or thing which is 
spoken of, and not addressed, it is in the third 
person. One remarkable exception to this rule 
exists in the Greek, where a neuter noun plu- 
ral requkes the verb to be in the singular num- 
ber ; a peculiarity not easily to be accounted 
for, unless the Greeks perhaps considered that 
there could be no individuality where there 
was no gender, and that therefore these things 
could only be spoken of collectively. 

2. That of the adjective icith its substantive ; namely, 
the agreement of the adjective in gender, num- 
ber, and case with the noun, or, which is the 
same thing, with the pronoun to which it be- 
longs ; and here there appears to be an excep- 
tion in the English, where the adjective is uni- 
versally indeclinable, yet this is but an appar- 
ent exception, for though the adjective admits 
of no inflection, nobody doubts that a perfect 
agreement "vsdth the substantive is implied. 
The strong 7nen, implies that aU the men are 
strong, and therefore the adjective is in fact 
plural : the good father's kindness implies that 
the kindness is a quality belonging to a father 
in so far as he is good ; therefore good is here 
in the same case as father, 

3, That of the relative with the antecedent; namely, 
the agreement of the relative pronoun* with 
the person or thing which it refers to, in gen- 
der, number, and person ; though here the En- 

* Englished bv who or which. 



46 UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. 

glish relative, being alike in both numbers, ap- 
pears, at first sight, to be anomalous. 

As universal is the rule that the ve7'h substantive^ 
shall have the same case after as before it ; for this 
is a rule originating in the very nature of things, 
since simple existence terminates in the individual, 
and has no relation to any other being. Verbs trans- 
itive, on the contrary, i, e., actions which have re- 
lation to other persons or things, are universally fol- 
lowed by an accusative case, and this whether it be 
marked by any inflection or not. For the thing acted 
upon can not be in the same condition as the actor ; 
and the same great distinction which exists between 
the active and passive voice of verbs, exists as natu-* 
rally and necessarily in nouns. All external actions 
require an agent and a patient; that is, in other 
words, must be accompanied by a nominative case 
or agent, and an accusative or patient. 

A verb which implies any particular relation of 
things necessarily governs the case which expresses 
that relation ; thus, verbs of giving, govern the da- 
tive case, for this case denotes an act of gift, and 
though in many modern languages the defective 
state of the inflections makes this obscure, yet it will 
be seen that verbs of giving require no following 
preposition to place the substantive or pronoun m 
the due relation.f 



* In English, to he. 

f In English we say give the man Ms due— mot give to the man^ 
etc., or give him his due, where the dative inflection again makes 
itself evident. 



UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. 47 

A verb in the infinitive mode is not accompanied 
by a nominative ; for it is the abstract idea of action 
unaccompanied by any agent. To speak conveys no 
impression but that of speech generally, and in or- 
der to connect it with any individual a verb transi- 
tive, which will govern an accusative, must precede 
it, or at least be understood : thus the sentence / con- 
sider him to he a fit person to speak to the people, con- 
tains two accusatives, i. e.. Mm and a Jit person, as 
would immediately be seen on rendering the phrase 
into Latin ; and thus it becomes a general and short 
rule, that an infinitive must be accompanied by an 
accusative. 

Prepositions universally govern a case, for they 
imply some peculiar relation of place or time, and 
it has been explained already that cases are but the 
expression of the relation in which persons or things 
stand to each other. / stood beside her ; / went aft- 
er him, may exemplify this rule, which is without 
an exception. 

Conjunctions which join different limbs of a sen- 
tence, will require to be followed by the same cases, 
modes, and tenses as preceded them. 

By fixing the above simple rules well in the mem- 
ory, much difiiculty in learning a new language will 
be avoided ; for it will be needless to go over afresh 
any of those parts which have the character of uni- 
versality, and a new grammar will be much less 
formidable than its bulk might otherwise make it 
appear. 



ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

As reference is often made to Saxon forms, and as 
Saxon words and inflections are occasionally intro- 
duced in this part of the book, we insert the Anglo- 
Saxon Alphabet : 

Form. Eepresentative and sound. 

S a 

B h 

E c 

D b 

e e 

r p 

E z 

h h 

I 1 

L 1 

03 m 

N n 

O 

P p 

R n 

8 y 

T c 

P I' 
D « 
U u 

CO p 
X X 



Y 



y 



a 


a, as in 


fat. 


h 


Tbe, 


a 


"bad. 


c 


ke, 


a 


uot. 


d 


de. 


a 


did. 


e 


e, 


6i 


met. 


f 


fe, 


a 


find. 


h 


ghe, 
he, 


(( 
a 


got. 
hat. 


i 
1 


le, 


a 
a 


■3in. 
^ amb. 


m 


me, 


(,i 


me. 


n 


ne, 


64 


neat. 





0, 


(( 


not. 


P 


pe, 


(£ 


pence. 


r 


re, 


ii 


rise. 


s 


se. 


(( 


sir. 


t 


te. 


(,(, 


term. 


th 


the. 


a 


thing. 


th 


edh, 


4( 


smooth. 


u 


u, 


a 


full. 


w 


we. 


4( 


willow. 


X 


ex. 


44 


six. 


7 


7' 


4£ 


lyricaL 



ENGLISH GRAIVIMAE. 49 

Having now given a short view of that part of 
grammar which is applicable to all languages, the 
next step is to notice the peculiarities of the English, 
the difficulties of which have not generally been suf- 
ficiently attended to by those who treat of Enghsh 
grammar. In order to facilitate the comparison with 
other works of the same kind, the different parts of 
speech shall be treated of in separate sections, and 
in the usual order — namely, 1. Article. 2. Noun- 
substantive. 3. NOUN-ADJIECTIVE. 4. PrONOUN. 

5. Verb. 6. Adverb. 7. Preposition. 8. Con- 
junction. 9. Interjection. 

I. Article. 

This part of speech finds a place in all modern 
European languages, and in most, though not all 
ancient ones. It is a small word prefixed to the sub- 
stantive to hmit its signification, and in English there 
are two of these, L e., a, and the, both indeclinable. 
A, when followed by a vowel or a mute ^, is changed 
into AN, for the sake of euphony. In the ancient 
Greek, and in all of the modern languages except 
our own, the article is declined, namely, varied in 
termination, according to the gender, number, and 
case of the accompanying substantive. In English, 
A is indefinitely singular ; as, " It is true greatness 
to have in one the frailty of a man, and the security 
of a God." The is definite and demonstrative in 
meaning, and applies equally to the singular and 
plural, as, " The virtue of prosperity is temperance, 
the virtue of adversity is fortitude, which in morals 



50 ENGLISH GKAMMAR, 

is the more heroical virtue. Prosperity is the bless- 
ing oithe Old Testament, adversity is the blessing of 
the New, which carrieth the greater benediction, and 
the clearer revelation of God's favor." " If he be 
compassionate toward the afflictions of others, it 
shows that his heart is like the noble tree, that is 
wounded itself when it gives the balm." 

In Latin, the article is wanting, and the power of 
expression of that language is thereby considerably 
impaired. 

For the benefit of foreigners it may be observed, 
that A or AN may be used indifferently before the 
words union^ unanimity^ universal^ and others in which 
the u has a sharp sound, but an must always be used 
before those in which the it is obtuse, as unhappy, 
uncle, etc. 

II. Noun-substantive, 

The substantive is the name of some person or 
thing. In the Anglo-Saxon grammars it is entitled 
Nama^ or name. 

The English substantive has lost all trace of the 
dual number, which existed in the more ancient lan- 
guages, and of which we find traces in the Anglo-Sax- 
on, L e., in the pronouns : its plural is usually formed 
by the addition of 5, as a yard., plural yards; but 
many words of Saxon derivation are irregular in this 
respect. The following list comprises the chief ones : 
Singular. Plural. 

Man Men. 

Brother Brethren. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ol 



Child 


Children. 


Ox 


Oxen. 


Woman 


Women. 


Foot 


Feet. 


Goose 


Geese. 


Tooth 


Teeth. 


Mouse 


Mice. 


Louse 


Lice. 


Die 


Dice. 


Penny 


Pence. 


Sow 


Swine. 


Cow 


Kine. 



Although these plurals are anomalous in our mod- 
ern English^ they are, in reality, genuine Saxon 
forms, conformable to the rules of Saxon develop- 
ment. The following nouns make their plural by 
changing the final /into ves^ as half^ plu] ' .• 

Half. Thief. 

Calf. Sheaf. 

Loaf. Leaf. 

Life. Staff. 

Wife. Shelf. 

Knife. Elf. 

Wolf. Self. 

In the Anglo-Saxon, / final, or when between two 
vowels, had probably the sound o^v ; hence the mod- 
ern plurals are easily accounted for ; the more so, if 
we bear it in mind that many substantives formerly 
terminated in e, and some of these retain it in the 
plural, though they have lost it in the singular, prob- 
ably because an unpleasant clashing of harsh letters 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAH* 

is thus avoided. Thus we say, a box, plural boxes; 
a lasJij plural lashes ; a churchy plural churches : or 
sometimes, to preserve the due length of the syllable ; 
as a hero^ plural heroes; an echo^ plural echoes: but 
in words more lately adopted from foreign languages 
only the s of the plural is added ; as, a folio^ plural 
folios ; a 'punctilio^ plural punctilios ; a nuntioj plural 
nuntios. Words ending in tj make their plural by 
changing y into ies; as a harpy ^ plural harpies; except 
when a vowel precedes the y^ in which case only s 
is used ; as valley^ plural valleys ; and, finally, many 
words of Latin and Greek derivation retain their re- 
spective plural ; as a phenomenon^ plural phenomena ; 
the aroma^ plural aromata^ etc. 

Gender. 

The English substantive, according to the univers- 
al rule, has three genders ; but unlike most other 
languages, ancient or modern, the larger part of the 
words of this description belong to the neuter gen- 
der ; for none are held masculine or feminine with- 
out an actual distinction of sex, unless in poetry, or 
in a very few instances of technical phrase. Even 
a ship^ which by seamen is constantly spoken of as 
feminine, is neuter in common parlance. From this 
general rule, however, we must except the Deity, 
God, and other terms of the same signification, which 
are constantly masculine. Other nouns there are, 
such as those of the planets, which admit of being 
made masculine or feminine, because they are named 
after heathen divinities; as Jupiter j Juno; or after 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



53 



distinguished men ; as Herschel, In the case of the 
sun and moon the Enghsh differs from its parent lan- 
guage ; for the sun is feminine, and the moon mascu- 
line in the German dialects in general, whereas the 
English in this follows the Greek and the Latin, and 
reverses the gender. In more ornate composition 
the virtues and vices are also made masculine and 
feminine. In some cases, nouns may be considered 
as of either gender ; as fox^ goat^ etc. ; but the ani- 
mals more commonly spoken of have a different term 
for the two sexes ; as lion, lioness ; stag, hind ; gander, 
goose; hart, roe. 

Case. 

The cases of English substantives are ^^^ ; that is, 
there are five different relations which it stands in 
with regard to other things, and which are under- 
stood in the word itself, without the aid of a prepo- 
sition. These, according to the phraseology of the 
Latin, are as follows : 

Singular. 

A man 

A man's 

A man 

A man 

Man ! 



Nominative, 

Genitive, 

Dative, 

Accusative, 

Vocative, 

Nominative, 

Genitive, 

Dative, 

Accusative, 

Vocative, 



A king 
A king's 
A king 
A king 
King! 



F^Iural. 

Men. 

Men's. 

Men. 

Men. 

Men! 

Kings. 
Kings'. 
Kings. 
Kings. 
Kings ! 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

Although the difference of inflection be but tri- 
fling, it will be easy to show that these are true cases 
of the substantive in current use, by placing them in 
conjunction with a verb, as thus : A iman (iV.) may 
heat ANOTHER MAN (-4.) if he can^ hut it is a bian's {G.) 
part to give him, i, e, a man {D.)^ fair play, Man ! 
F.) hold your hand. Here we have the agent, or 
nominative, that beats ; the patient,, or accusative, 
that is beaten ; the person standing in the relation 
of possession, or genitive, and of giving, or dative ; 
finally, in that of being addressed by another, or voc- 
ative ; and all this without the intervention of any 
other word to mark the relative position or state. 
They are, therefore, genuine cases. 

Dr. Murray is adverse to such a theory of cases, 
and cites the following expression of Dr. Beattie in 
support of his objection : ^' If cases are to be distin- 
guished by the different significations of the noun, or 
by the different relations it may bear to the govern- 
ing word, then we have in our language as many 
cases almost as there are prepositions ; and above a 
man, beneath a man, beyond a man, round about a 
man, within a man, without a man, etc., shall be 
cases, as well as of a man, to a man, and with a 
man." 

It may be a sufficient reply, to observe that prep- 
ositions do not supersede cases so as to annihilate 
them ; they are used as auxiliaries. Languages 
which recognize more cases than the Greek and Latin 
possess do not lack prepositions. While the several 
cases express, in a general ivay^ the different relations 



ENGLISH GRAmiAR. 55 

of the noun, the prepositions express the modifications 
caul more delicate shades of such relations. The Eev. 
Dr. Lowth, whose authority in English Grammar is 
very great, writes that "In those and the like phrases 
\e, g.^ give him his due ; lend him your book, etc.], 
may not me^ thee^ him^ her^ us^ which in Saxon are 
the dative cases of their respective pronouns, be con- 
sidered as still continuing such in the English, and 
including in their very form the force of the preposi- 
tions ^0 and/b?^? There are certainly some other 
phrases which are to be resolved in this manner. 
* Woe is me /' The phrase is pure Saxon ' wa is me !' 
me is the dative case : in English, with the preposi- 
tion, ^o wze. ^o'methinksf ^dCKOxi ^ methincth f SfioL 
doKSi. 'As us thoughte^ Sir John Maundevylle. 
' Methoughte this short interval of silence has had 
more music in it than any of the same space of time 
before or after it,^— Addison, Tatler, No. 133. See 
also Spectator, No. 63. It ought to be methought. 
' The Lord do that which seemeth him good,' 2 Sam. 
X. 12. See also 1 Sam. iii. 18 ; 2 Sam. x\dii. 4. 
'O well is thee r Ps. cxxviii. 2. 'Wei his the, id 
est, bene est tibi,' Simeon Dunelm, apud x. Scriptores, 
col. 135. 'Wei is him that ther mai be,' Anglo-Sax- 
on poem in Hickes's Thesaur. vol. i. p. 231. 'Well 
is him that dwelleth with a wife of understanding,' 
' Well is him that hath found prudence,' Ecclus. xxv. 
8, 9. The translator thought to correct his phrase 
afterward, and so hath made it neither Saxon nor En- 
glish : ' Wei is he that is defended from it,' Ecclus. 
xxviii. 1 9, ' Woe worth the day !' Ezek. xxx. 2 ; that 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

is, ' Woe be to the day.' The word worth is not the 
adjective, but the Saxon verb weorthaii^ or worth an, 
fieri, to hcj to become^ which is often used by Chaucer, 
and is still retained as an auxiliary verb in the Ger- 
man language." — Lowth's Grammar^ p. 166, note 6. 
Furthermore, cases inhere in the very nature of 
universal language, and the dialect that is the basis 
of the English has fixed inflectional forms for its va- 
rious cases of nouns. The error lies in supposing 
that a rejection of the distinctive inflectional term- 
inations must needs involve an annihilation of the 
cases also. The following is a synopsis of the three 
declensions of nouns, as given in KlrpsteirHs Anglo- 
Saxon Grammar. The jZ/^s^ declension contains mas- 
culine and neuter nouns ; the second^ masculine, fem- 
inine, and neuter ; the thirds feminine only. 

Synopsis of the Declensions. 
1. 





S 
M. 


angular . 

jsr. N. 


M. 


Plural 


i\^. 


N. 


— . 


— 


— 


as 


— 


a. 


G. 


es 


es 


es 


a 


a 


a (ena). 


D. 


e 


e 


e 


um 


um 


um (on, an). 


A. 


— 


— 


— 


as 


— 


u. 




M. 


K 


JV. 


2. 


F. 


W. 


N. 


a 


e 


e 


an 


an 


an. 


G, 


an 


an 


an 


ena 


ena 


ena. 


D. 


an 


an 


an 


um 


um 


um (on, an). 


A. 


an 


en 


e 


an 


an 


an. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57 

3. 



F. 


F. 


F. 


F. 


N. — 


u 


a 


a. 


G, e 


e 


a 


ena. 


D. e 


e 


um 


wm. (on, an). 


A. e 


e 


a 


a. 



- We add an Anglo-Saxon noun of the first declen- 
sion. This declension is characterized by its geni- 
tive singular ending in es. 

Singular. ' Plural, 

Wo7n. SmiS Smith SmiSaj" Smithas. 

Gen. Smi"Se]" Smithes 8mi-Sa Smitha. 

Dat. SmiSe Smithe Smi-Sum Sinithum. 

Ace. 8mi5 Smith SmiSap Smithas. 

It will easily be seen that the declension of our 
substantives is lineally descended from this, and that 
our Smith's is but the abbreviation of Smithes^ and not 
of Smith his, as some have fancied and, in ignorance 
of the parent language, written.* This becomes yet 
more evident if we take the genitive case of a fem- 
inine noun ; for it is clear that the phrase " the 
Queenes Majestic," so frequently used by the writers 

* It is, however, a fault rather common among our elder 
writers. The framers of the Liturgy have sanctified it, and 
Lord Bacon has carried it so far as to write "the Sphinx her 
riddles;" and elsewhere, "Epimetheus his sect" — "Prometheus 
Ms scholars." Yet in other places he uses the genitive case 
freely, as " Certainly there be whose fortunes are like Homer's 
verses, that have a slide and easiness more than the verses of 
other poets, as Plutarch saith of Timoleori's fortune in respect 
of that of Agesilaus or Epaminondas ; and that this should be 
no doubt it is much in a man's self."^ — Essays, 



58 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

of Elizabeth's reign, can never be made into the 
Quee7i his majesty^ any more than it can be Elizabeth 
his reign. 

Take an example from Shakspeare : 

" Who taught you this ? 
I learned it out of womerCs faces." 

As we have shown in the Synopsis, the Anglo- 
Saxon has three declensions of substantives, in the 
second and third of which the accusative has its own 
peculiar termination ; as/>it:ega5 witega^ a prophet^ ace. 
i&it:egan5 ivitegan; feunge, tunge^ a tongue; ace. 
t^migan, tungan. In the first, the accusative and 
nominative are alike. The English seems to have re- 
tained the form of the first declension only, and even 
there to have dropped the peculiar termination of the 
dative, both in the singular and pluraL This is to 
be regretted, for much ambiguity of expression ne- 
cessarily follows the want of a distinguishing termina- 
tion for the accusative and dative cases. 

III. Noun Adjective. 

This was appropriately called by the Anglo-Sax- 
ons Namer gerepa, or Noun's companion. In En- 
glish it is wholly indeclinable, excepting when it re- 
ceives a different termination in the degrees of com- 
parison. In the Anglo-Saxon it is fully declined, as 
it is still in the German, excepting where it stands 
alone ; its complete unchangeableness may be reck-, 
oned among the peculiarities of our tongue. 

The comparative and superlative degrees are reg- 
ularly formed from the positive, by adding er and est. 



ENOLISH GRAMMAR. 



59 



These suffixes are modifications of the Anglo-Saxon 
inflections ne, re, and ort or erC, ost or est. Thus, 
Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Saxon, Smael Smael-pe Smael-ej^c or 0]"t:. 
English, Small Small-er Small-est. 
Some adjectives are irregularly compared ; as. 



Pos. 


Comp. 


Superl. 


Good 


Better 


Best. 


Bad or lU 


Worse 


Worst. 


Little 


Less 


Lea&t. 


Near 


Nearer 


CNext or 
(.Nearest. 


Old 


("Elder 
toider 


("Eldest. 
iOldest. 


(Fore) 


Former 


First. 



f'^'^X More Most. 

ManyJ 

These anomalies have originated variously. Some 
are merely contractions of the regular full form ; as, 
worst for ivorsest, least for lessest, etc. 

Some are the regular forms of positives noiv obsolete, 
for which other positives have been substituted; as, 

Pos. Comp. 

Obsolete (probably) bet, or") , 
Substitute good j 

Again, others are formed by an irregular transpo- 
sition of the sign most ; 2^^ fore-most instead oi most-fore. 
And, lastly, some are truly adverbial forms used 
adjectively in their several degrees of comparison ; as, 
hind (the root), hind-most. 
under '' under-most. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Words of three syllables and more are usually 
compared by means oi more and most; as charitable^ 
more charitable, most charitable. 

In most languages the numerals are declined up to 
a certain point ; in English they are wholly inde- 
clinable. 

lY. Pronoun. 

Pronouns (Lat. pro-nomina) are words used instead 
of nouns. " They are distinguished into three sev- 
eral sorts, called pronouns of the First, Second, and 
Third Person, with a view to certain distinctions 
which may be explained as follows ; Suppose the 
parties conversing to be wholly unacquainted, neither 
name nor countenance on either side known, and the 
subject of the conversation to be the speaker himself. 
Here, to supply the place of pointing, by a word of 
equal power, the authors of language furnished the 
speaker with the pronoun I — / write, / say, / desire, 
etc. ; and as the speaker is always principal with re- 
spect to his own discourse, this they called, for that 
reason, the pronoun of the First Person. 

" Again, suppose the subject of the conversation 
to be the 'party addressed. Here, for similar reasons, 
they invented the pronoun Thou — Thou writest. Thou 
walkest, etc. ; and as the party addressed is next in 
dignity to the speaker, or at least comes next with 
reference to the discourse, this pronoun they there- 
fore called the pronoun of the Second Person. 

"Lastly, suppose the subject of conversation nei- 
ther the speaker nor the party addressed, but some 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61 

third object, different from both. Here they provided 
another pronoun, He, She, It, which, in distinction 
from the two former, was called the pronoun of 
the Thi7^d Person; and thus it was that pronouns 
came to be distinguished by their respective persons. 
These are also called Primitive ; namely, those which 
form the ground of all the rest, represent the noun 
perfectly in all its relations, and alone can be the 
nominative to a verb. 

A further classification of them is made into 
Possessive. Distributive. 

, Relative. Interrogative. 

Demonstrative. Indefinite. 

Possessive, a form derived from the genitive case 
of the primitive, of the nature of an adjective : like 
this, it agrees with the substantive which it accom- 
panies, and like it, too, in English it is indecHnable. 

Relative, which has relation to an antecedent 
noun. 

Demonstrative, which has relation to a noun fol- 
lowing. 

Distributive, which denotes the persons or things 
that make up a number, as taken separately and 
singly. 

Interrogative, which is used in asking questions. 

Indefinite, such as each, some, etc., which have 
more of the nature of an adjective than pronoun, and 
perhaps in English, as they are wholly indeclinable, 
they would be better considered as such. 

The primitive pronoun of the first person is thus 
declined. 



62 ENGLISH gkamma:k. 



Sing, 




We. 


G. My 
B. Me 




Our. 

Us. 


A. Me 




Us. 


The Anglo-Saxon is. 






Ic ie 


Fe 


we. 


Min m^V^ 


Une ure. 


Me me Up us. 
Me Mec m^ or mec Up ^^5. 


The primitive pronoun 


of the second person is, 


Sing. 

W. Thou 




Plur. 

Ye or you. 


G. Thy 
i>. Thee 




Your. 
You. 


^. Thee 




You. 


The Anglo-Saxon is. 






Du thee 


Ee 


ge. 


Jim 2^ Am Gopep eower. 
Jie ^A^ Gap 66>z(;. 
fie fee 2^A^ or 2fA^(^ Gop eou>. 


The primitive pronoun 


of the third person is, 


M. F: 


N. 


Plur. 

M. F: and N. 


N. He She It. 
G. His Her, Hers Its. 
D, Him Her It. 


They. 
Their. 
Them. 


A. Him Her 


It. 


Them. 



The Anglo-Saxon is, 



ENGLISH GRASIMAH, 63 



Singular. 
Masc. Fern. 


NeuL 


W. Kye he. y:SQO heo. 


toit: hit. 


G. hjY hys. toipe hire. 
D. )::^im him. hvfie hire. 


hvy his. 
J:^!!!! him. 


A. hwie hine. y:^\ hi. 


]:;iit: hit. 


Plural 




Masc. Fern, and JSfeut. 


K hi hi. X^i 


hi. 


G. ftipa hira. )2eopa 
D. fcim him. hiva 


heora. 
him. 


A. hi hi. hi 


hi. 



The possessive of the first person is, 

Sing. Mine. Plur. Ours. 

The Anglo-Saxon possessive is fully declined. 

The possessive of the second person is, 

Sing. Thine. Plur. Yours. 

The possessive of the third person is. 

Sing. Plur. 

M. F. N. M.F.andN. 

His Hers Its, Theirs. 

It may here be noticed that it is the personal pro- 
noun alone that can perfectly supersede the noun, 
whose place it takes in gender, number, and case. 
Thus we may say JohUs mother^ or his mother^ indif- 
ferently. The substantive is masculine, singular, in 
the genitive case, and so also is the pronoun. This 
observation may serve to remove some of the diffi- 
culties of foreigners vdth regard to the English habit 
of using the genitive case of the primitive instead of 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

the possessive pronoun. In the southern European 
languages the practice is reversed, and the possessive 
is constantly used to the exclusion of the genitive 
case. Thus, in speaking of a man^s mother, they 
would say, sa mere — sua madre^ sa and sua being 
the feminine singular of the possessive pronoun, 
agreeing with the feminine singular noun, mere or 
madre. In the English the genitive case of the prim- 
itive would be used, and we should say his mother^ 
which has the advantage of avoiding all ambiguity. 
The Latin mater ejus does not allow of this precision, 
which is attained by the Greek firirrjp avrs, as well 
as by the German, which has a separate form of pro- 
noun possessive, according as the person of whom it 
is predicated is male or female. 

The Possessive pronoun, which may more prop- 
erly be termed a pronominal adjective, is never used 
in English but in such phrases as. It is mine ; thine 
was the praise ; what a fate was hers. 

The Eelative pronouns are ivho, which, that, and 
the compound what, generally equivalent to that ivhich, 
those which. Who and which are thus declined : 
Singular and Plural. 

Masc. and Fern. Neut. 

Norn. Who Which. 

Gen, Whose Whose. 

Dat. and Ace. Whom Which. 

That and what are indeclinable. The latter is a 
mixture between the relative and demonstrative, and 
has the force of that which; as, "advise what you 
say :" 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 65 

" What shall I do ? 
Even what it please my lord that shall become him." 

" What he hath lost noble Macbeth hath won." 

In the Anglo-Saxon, however, and in old English, 
what formed the neuter of ivho. 

The Demonstrative pronouns are that, this, and 
what ; they admit no inflection, save the change from 
singular to plural. That makes those in the plural ; 
this makes these, and ivhat is wholly indeclinable. 

The Distributive pronouns are either, every, each. 
Their reference is to the individuals of a number 
taken separately or distrihutively. Either relates to 
one or other of tivo persons or things. Every refers 
to all the individuals of a greater number. Each par- 
takes of the nature of both either and evei-y, inasmuch 
as it signifies one or other of two, and also every one 
of any number taken separately. 

Interrogative pronouns. Who, ivhich, and what 
are used as interrogatives in such phrases as. Who is 
coming ? Which of the two teas it ? What did he 
say? 

Which, when used interrogatively, applies to all 
genders, and is used for discrimination ; as, 

"An apple cleft in two, is not more twain 
Than these two creatures. Which is Sebastian ?" 

" Pray you, tell me this, 

Which of the two was daughter to the duke, - 
That here were at the wrestling ?" 

"For which of these works do ye stone me?" 

What is the proper interrogative of the demon- 
strative; as, "When any new thing comes in their 



66 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 

way, children ask the common question of a stranger, 
What is it V 

" I left no ring with her — ivhat means this lady ?" 
The Indefinite pronouns are so called because 
they indicate their subjects in an indefinite or general 
manner. Sonfie^ other^ any^ 07ie, all, such, both, etc., 
are of this kind. One and other are varied. The 
rest are indeclinable. 
One is thus declined : 
Sing. Phr, 

( "One is apt to love one^s self." ^ 
N, One J "And for it came up four nota- ! Ones. 
G. One's I ble ones toward the four winds i Ones', 

V of heaven." ) 

D. One Ones. 

{ " He will hate the oner ^ 

A, One <; "I have commanded my sane- } Ones, 

V tified onesr J 
Other is thus declined : 

Sing, Phr. 

JSr. Other Others. 

G. Other's Others'. 

D. Other Others. 

A. Other Others. 

The plural form in s is used only apa7't from the 
noun to which it refers ; as, " What do ye more than 
others f "He saved others, himself he can not 
save." When the word is used in connection with 
a noun, the invariable form is other for both singular 
and plural ; as, " The Lord called as at other times ;" 
" Other foundation can no man lay than is laid." 



ENGLISH GKAMMAK* 



67 



The English has one peculiar class of pronouns an- 
swering in sense to the Latin ipse. These are com- 
pounded, for the most part, of the genitive case of 
the primitive, united vv^ith the substantive self. In 
the third person, however, "the accusative is used in- 
stead of the genitive, thus : 

Sing. 'Blur, 

1st Person Myself Ourselves. 

2d Person Thyself Yourselves, 

Sing. Plur. 

Masc, Fern, Neut, 

8d Pers. Himself Herself Itself Themselves. 

This form of the pronoun seems merely to be an 
amalgamation of two words, the one in the genitive 
case, as must always be when two nouns come to- 
gether ; for the form of the third person appears only 
a corruption of the original his self which gave an 
unpleasant hissing sound. In old writers we find 
Us self; as, " Every one of us, each for his self labor- 
ed how to recover him." 



V. Verb. 

The Verb, termed Word by the Anglo-Saxons, 
expresses any action, endurance, or passion of body 
or mind ; as, to move^ to hear^ to love. It is either trans- 
itive, i, e., communicates its action to some person 
or thing, as, to build a tower ; or intransitive, i, e,, 
completes its action in itself, as, to sleep. 

The English verb has two voices, the active and 
the passive. The active voice expresses what is done 
by its subject, the agent ; the passive voice expresses 
what i?5 suffered by it^ subject, the patierd. 



68 ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 

There are four moods or modes : the Indicative, 
which simply indicates the performance ; as, / walk : 
the Ijmperative, which commands ; as, walk I the 
Subjunctive, which is contingent ; as, if I walk ; and 
the Infinitive, or abstract action, independent of any 
person ; as, to walk. 

The simple tenses or times are few : in the In- 
dicative only two, namely, present and past ; in the 
Imperative only one, and even that is defective, for 
it requires the aid of the verb to let to make the third 
person of the singular, and the first and third of the 
plural ; in the Subjunctive, as in the Indicative, only 
present and past. But although the simple tenses 
are few, the compound ones are numerous almost be- 
yond example. 

The parts of the regular verb that can be express- 
ed without the intervention of auxiliary verbs are as 
follows : 

Active Voice. 
Infinitive Mood, Present Tense, To Love. 

Indicative Mood, Present Tense, I love. 

Indicative Mood, Imperfect Tense, I loved. 

Subjunctive Mood, Present Tense, (If) I love. 
Subjunctive Mood, Imperfect Tense, " I loved. 

Imperative Mood, Present Tense, Love thou. 

Passive Voice. 
The past participle is the only portion of the pas- 
sive voice that is independent of an auxiliary ; as. 
Past Participle =: Loved. 
Hence we see how frequent and potent the use of 
our auxiliaries mast be. Without them, the verb 



ENGLISH GRAMIIAR. 



69 



has a very narrow scope of expression ; with their 
aid, the slightest variations of meaning are given with 
extraordinary precision. We subjoin a synopsis of 
the Saxon verb " lufian." It will be seen that in in- 
flectional forms to distinguish the Subjunctive Mood, 
it is richer than our English verb. 



Ini>icative Mood. 



Singular ' 



Plural 



Singular 



Plural 



Indefinite Tense. 
I'l. ic luf-ige 
I 2. thu luf-ast 
^3. he, heo, hit luf-ath 
"1. we luf-iath 
I 2. ge luf-iath 
S.3. hi luf-iath 

Perfoct Tense, 
ri. ic luf-ode 
I 2. thu luf-odest 
LS. he, heo, hit luf-ode 
ri. we luf-odon 
J 2. ge luf-odon 
13. hi luf-odon 



I love. 

thou lovest. 

he, she, it loveth. 

we "^ 

ye V love. 

they) 

I loved, 
thou lovedst. 
he, she, it loved, 
we loved. 
ye loved, 
they loved. 



Subjunctive Mood. 

Indefinite Tense. 

f 1. ic luf-ige I love. 

Singular ■{ 2. thu luf-ige thou love. 

(.3. he, heo, hit luf-ige he, she, it love. 

ri. we luf-ion we love. 

Plural "^ 2. ge luf-ion ye love. 

Cs. hi luf-ion they love. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Perfect Tense, 

ri. ic luf-ode I loved. 

Singular •{ 2. thu luf-ode thou loved. 

(.3. he, heo, hit luf-ode he, she, it loved. 

ri. we luf-odon we loved. 

Plural •> 2. ge luf-odon ye loved. 

Cs. hi luf-odon they loved. 

Ijmperative Mood. 
Singular 2. luf-a thii. 
Plural 2. luf-iath (ge). 

Infinitive Mood. 

Indefinite Tense, 
luf-ian to love. 

Participles. 

Indefinite luf-igende loving. 
Perfect luf-od loved. 

Gerund. 

Tto love, about to love ; in, 
Indefinite to luf-igenne *^ of, and to loving, and to 

Cbe loved. 

Herein is the old, early frame-work of our verbs 
— the tightly-knit constitution on which they depend 
for their strength. But the manifold subdivisions 
of nice and subtile expression are uttered by means 
of the auxiliaries. We will therefore treat of them 
before we give a full conjugation of an English verb. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 71 

Many of the auxiliaries necessary to the formation 
of the English verb are defective, having at present 
only those tenses which are entirely wanting as sim- 
ple tenses in the regular verb : or (for it is difficult 
to decide the real origin of the circumstance) per- 
haps possessing in themselves the sense required, 
which, in the original, is a compound of the primary 
signification, plus the idea of time — this latter idea 
being there incidental and subordinate ; whereas, in 
the auxiliary, it becomes a paramount meaning, as, 
in German, icerden^ to hecome, which has in itself a 
future signification, performs the part of a future 
tense. In the Anglo-Saxon tongue, rceaL shall^ from 
the verb rceolan, to owe, performs this office, and 
we may see from our own use of / ought, that to owe 
has in itself a kind of future tense. But the manner 
of compounding the English verb with its auxilia- 
ries is so anomalous that it forms the greatest diffi- 
culty of the language, and requires ample explana- 
tion. 

The complete auxiliaries, which are consequently 
used very commonly as independent principal verbs, 
are, 

1. Be, in Saxon, Beon. 

2. Have, in Saxon, Habban. 

3. Will, in Saxon, Willan. 

4. Let, in Saxon, Lettan. 

5. Do, in Saxon, Don. 

The defective auxiliaries, which are therefore never 
used as independent principal verbs, are. 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Present. Imperfect. 

1. Can Could. 

2. May Might, 

3. Shall Should. 

4. Must Must. 

1. Can, from the Saxon verb cunnan, to Teen, sig- 
nifies -< ^^^\Jl,, y and. as distin2;uished fi'om may, 
(.possibility,/ ' ^ '^' 

refers to the ability of the agent. It is thus conju- 
gated : 



Indicative and Subjunctive Moods. 
Present. 
I can We 

Thou canst Ye or you ^ can. 

He can. They 

Past. 
I could 
Thou couldest 

or couldst 
He could. 



•} 



We ^ 

Ye or you V could. 
They ) 



2. May, from the Saxon magan, to he able, denotes 
Tpossibility, \ 

•I liberty, V- and, as distinguished from can, re- 

V.contingency,J 
fers to the right or possibility of the thing. 

When, like shall, it is compounded with the in- 
finitive, omitting the to, it signifies permission; as, 
you MAY go ; you may i^ead that hook : but when com- 
pounded with have, or he, and a participle, it gives 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 73 

some uncertainty to the expression ; as, " Among in- 
numerable instances that may be given ;" /may have 
said so ; He imay have had reason to think it ; in which 
latter it is equivalent to c'est possible que. When it 
is a second limb of a sentence beginning wdth a verb 
in the subjunctive mood, or the conjunction when^ it 
implies the possibility of doing a thing, the first con- 
dition being fulfilled ; as, '' When there is a battle in 
the Haymarket Theatre one may hear it as far as 
Charing Cross," It is thus conjugated : 

Indicative and Subjunctive Moods. 

Present, 

I may ^^ 

Thou mayest ^ f 

•^ X e or you >- may. 

ormayst ^ | 

He may. 

Past and Future, 

I might We 

Thou mightest Ye or you V- might. 

He might. They 

When compounded with have^ or he^ and a parti- 
ciple, might becomes a past tense ; as, " Supposing 
these people had endeavored to kill me with their 
spears and arrows while I was asleep, I should cer- 
tainly have awaked with the first sense of smart, 
which might so far have roused my rage and strength 
as to have enabled me," etc. ; but when joined vdth 
the infinitive it is future in its sense ; as, " I thought 
it the most prudent method to lie still . . till night; 
when, my left hand being akeady loose, I could 



I 



74 ENGLISH GRAIVIMAE. 

easily free myself; and as for the inhabitants, I had 
reason to believe I might he a match for the greatest 
army they could bring against me." 

3. Must^ from the Saxon mot, to ought^ signifies 
^necessity, "^ 

-< certainty, v arising from the nature or circum- 
Ccompulsion,J 
stances of the case. 

It is to be considered as a defective auxiliary, for 
it is regularly compounded with the infinitive, like 
SHALL, etc. ; but its conjugation is alike in all per- 
sons and tenses ; as, 

Singular. 
First Person, All that the Lord speaketh, that / 

must do. — Numbers, xxiii. 26. 
Second Person. Thou must offer it unto the Lord. — 

Judges, xiii. 16. 
Third Person, He that ruleth over men must be just. 

■ — 2 Samuel, xxiii. 3. 

Plural. 

First Person. We must all appear before the judg- 
ment-seat of Christ. — 2 Corinth. 
V. 10. 

Second Person. Ye must be born again. — John, iii. 7. 

Third Person. They must needs be borne. — Jer. x. 5. 

"... Then must the Jew be merciful. 
. . . On what compulsion must I ? tell me that." 

"Fade, flowers, fade, nature will have it so; 
'Tis but what we must in our autumn do." 

Its force goes one step further than the second fu- 



ENGLISH GRABIMAK. 75 

ture of SHALL, but implies an abstract necessity rath- 
er than compulsion on the part of another. He shall 
has so far reference to the speaker, as to imply that 
he will himself enforce his command : he must has 
reference only to the person spoken of, who may be 
coerced by some ch'cumstance over which the speak- 
er possibly may have no control. It is evident that 
these two last are not a necessary part of the regu- 
lar verb, but are merely called in to aid in the ex- 
pression of circumstances rather than of time. 

Shall and ivill are reserved for consideration be- 
low. 

To have^ which is the most independent of its as- 
sociate auxiliaries, is conjugated as follows : 

Infinitiye Mood. 

To have. 

Participle Present. Participle Past, 

Having. Had. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 

I have We have 

Thou hast Ye or you have 

He has. They have. 

Imperfect Tense. 

I had We had 

Thou hadst Ye had 

He had. They had. 

Perfect Tense. 

I have had We have had 

Thou hast had Ye have had 

He has had. They have had. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Pluperfect Tense. 
I had had We had had 

Thou hadst had Ye had had 

He had had. They had had. 

Imperfect Simple Future Tense. 
I shall have We shall have 

Thou wilt have Ye will have 

He will have. They will have. 

Imperfect Imperative Future Tense, 
I will have We will have 

Thou shalt have Ye shall have 

He shall have. They shall have. 

Perfect Simple Future Tense. 
I shall have had We shall have had 

Thou wilt have had Ye will have had 

He will have had. They will have had. 

Perfect Imperative Future Tense. 
I will have had We will have had 

Thou shalt have had Ye shall have had 
He shall have had. They shall have had. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 
If I have If we have 

If thou have If ye or you have 

If he have. If they have. 

Imperfect Tense. 
If I had If we had 

If thou hadst If ye or you had 

If he had. If they had. 

Though only if is here prefixed to the verb, any 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 77 

other conjunction proper for the subjunctive mood 
may be used. The remaining tenses of this mood 
are similar to the corresponding tenses of the Indic- 
ative, with the addition to the verb of a conjunction 
(expressed or implied) that denotes a condition, mo- 
tive, wish, contingency, etc. 

Potential Mood. 
By compounding may^ cai\ must^ mighty could, would^ 
and should, with the Infinitive mood (omitting the 
sign to) to form a present and imperfect tense, as, 

Present, I may or can (to) have. 
Imperfect, I might or could (to) have ; 

and with the perfect Indicative, to form a perfect 
and pluperfect tense, as, 

Perfect, I mav have had, . 
Pluperfect, I might have had, 

grammarians frame what is called the Potential 
Mood ; which, as its name implies, denotes power, 
permission, liberty, possibility, necessity, etc. It is 
thus conjugated : 

Present Tense, 

Singular, 

I may, can, or must ") 

Thou mayst, canst, or must >• have. 

He may, can, or must .) 

Plural. 

We may, can, or must 1 

Ye may, can, or must >• have. 

They may, can, or must J 



78 EKGIISH GEAMVIAR. 

Imperfect Tense, 
Singular. 

I might, could, would, or should "^ 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst >• have. 
He might, could, would, or should j 

Plural. 
We might, could, would, or should ^ 
Ye might, could, would, or should >• have. 
They might, could, would, or should J 

Perfect Tense, 
Singular, 

I may, can, or must ") 

Thou mayst, canst, or must V have had* 

He may, can, or must .) 

Plural. 

We may, can, or must "^ 

Ye may, can, or must >- have had. 

They may, can, or must J 



Plupefrfect Tense, 
Singular. 

- - ]■ 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst r , ^ 
He might, could, would, or should J 



I mie^ht, could, would, or should , , 

^ have 



Plural. 
We might, could, would, or should ^ 
Ye might, could, would, or should > have had» 
They might, could, would, or shouldJ 



ENGLISH GRAM3IAE. 79 

LvrPERATivE Mood. 

Singular. Plural, 

1. Let me have Let us have 

2. Have thou Have ye 

3. Let him have. Let them have. 

To Be. 

The substantive verb to he is thus conjugated : 



InfdsItive Mood. 




To be. 


Participle Present. Participle Past. 


Being. 


Been. 


Indicative Mood. 




Present Tense. 


I am 


"We are 


Thou art 


Ye or you are. 


He is. 


They are. 




Imperfect Tense. 


I was 


"We were 


Thou wast 


Ye or you were 


He was. 


They were. 




Pefifect Tense. 


I have been 


We have been. 


Thou hast been Ye have been 


He has been. 


They have been, 




Pluperfect Tense. 


I had been 


We had been 


Thou hadst been Ye had been 


He had been. 


They had been. 



80 ENGLISH GRAIMMAR, 

Imperfect Simple Future Tense. 
I shall be We shall be 

Thou wilt be Ye will be 

He will be. They will be. 

Imperfect Imperative Future Tense, 
I will be We will be 

Thou shalt be Ye shall be 

He shall be. They shall be. 

Perfect Simple Future Tense. 
I shall have been We shall have been 

Thou wilt have been Ye will have been 

He will have been. They will have been. 

Perfect Imperative Future Tense. 
I will have been We will have been 

Thou shalt have been Ye shall have been 
He shall have been. They shall have been. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 
If I be If we be 

If thou be If ye or you be 

If he be. If they be. 

Imperfect Tense. 
If I were If we were 

If thou wert If ye or you were 

If he were. If they were. 

The remaining tenses are like the corresponding 
times in the Indicative Mood, with a proper con- 
junction prefixed e 



english gramzsiae, 81 

Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 
I may, can, or must ^ 

Thou mayst, canst, or must y be. 
He may, can, or must j 

We may, can, or must ") 
Ye may, can, or must V be. 
They may, can, or must J 

Imperfect Tense. 
I might, could, would, or should "\ 

Thou might st, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst v be. 
He might, could, would, or should ) 

We might, could, would, or should ^ 
Ye might, could, would, or should v be. 
They might, could, would, or shouldj 

Perfect Tense. 
I may or can ^ 

Thou mayst or canst v have been. 
He may or can J 

We may or can ") 

Ye may or can >- have been. 

They may or canJ 

Pluperfect Tense. 
I might, could, would, or should *) , 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst v , 
He might, could, would, or should j 

We might, could, would, or should ") 
Ye might, could, would, or should > have been. 
They might, could, would, or should J 
F 



82 ENOLISH GRAMMAR. 

BiPERATiYE Mood. 

Singular. Plural. 

Let me be Let us be 

Be thou Be ye 

Let him be. Let them be. 

Be is compounded with both participles : with the 
participle past it forms the passive voice ; as, / am 
loved; with the participle present it forms a very 
nice modification of time, implying a continued or 
unfinished action; as, I am loriting ; I ivas writing 
when he came in. With the present participle of the 
verbs come and go^ it is used to express an imme- 
diate, or, as it were, a present future; thus, / am 
going; he is co7ning; unless the sense be modified by 
an adverb of time ; and then we can say, / am going 
next year J or, the year after next. 

Do. 

Do and Let differ from the other auxiliaries, inas- 
much as they assist to modify only the meaning of 
the verb ; whereas the others modify the time also. 
The conjugation of do^ when used as an auxiliary, 
is as follows : 

Infinitive Mood. 

To do. 

Participle Present. Participle Past. 

Doing. Done. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 
I do We do 

Thou doest Ye or you do 

He does. They do. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 83 

Imperfect Tense. 
I did We did 

Thou didst Ye or jou did 

He did. They did. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 

If I do If we do 

If thou do If ye or you do 

If he do. If they do. 
Past Tense. 

If I did If we did 

If thou didst If ye or you did 

If he did. If they did. 

I^iPERATiTE Mood. 
Do (thou). Do (ye). 

Do, like SHALL, is compounded with the infinitive, 
omitting the preposition to ; and was formerly more 
used than it is at present. Its modern use is con- 
fined to questions ; as, Do you think so ? negations ; as, 
/ DO not believe it : entreaty ; as. Do icrite to me : and 
emphatic assertion; as, /do really thinJc; /did sup- 
pose. In the participle past it has sometimes a pe- 
culiar sense, and signifies a completed action ; as, / 
have DONE iiriting, i. e., I have finished ; The meat is 
DONE, i, e,, it is sufiiciently cooked ; / am done itp, 
i. e., my strength is at an end ; He is done for, i. e., 
his life or his fortune is finished. In the participle 
present it has likewise some peculiar meanings : He 
is DOING icell, signifies, either that he is prospering 
in fortune, or recovering from sickness — he is doing 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 

ill. means the reverse of these. That will do^ signi- 
fies it is enough, I am undone, means I am ruined ; 
but to undo is to unfasten. Do, compounded with the 
prepositions on and off, forms two regular verbs, 
namely, to don, i. e., to do on or d^on a vestment, and 
its opposite, to doff, i, e., do off^ or d'off. 

Let. 
Let, as an auxiliary, is used solely to express the 
first and third persons, singular and plural, of the 
imperative mood. It does not change its form, and 
is of the second person only. 

Shale and Will. 
Of the auxiliaries, which are all puzzling to a for- 
eigner, shall and ivill offer by far the greatest diffi- 
culties, and involve points of some subtilty ; we pro- 
pose, therefore, to treat of them historically and ety- 
mologically at some length. In the Anglo-Saxon 
tongue, rceal furnishes the simple future to all the 
persons. In English, shall and ivill are both re- 
quired to form our future tenses, and, by long usage, 
have become so amalgamated, that some parts of 
each tense are taken from the one verb, and some 
from the other. The simple future is thus : 

Singular, Plural. 

I shall We shall 

Thou wilt Ye will 

He will. They will. 

In this tense the idea of time is prominent. But 

there is also a second or imperative future, in which 



ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 85 

the two verbs chaDge places, and / icillj in the first 
person, has the force of a vehement determmation ; 
thou skalt, in the second person, has the force of a 
stern command. The second form stands thus : 
I wiU We wiU 

Thou Shalt Ye shaU 

He shall. They shaU. 

The following table illustrates their present power. 



Shall 


in 


the 1st Person, denotes 




Time, plus Intention 


a 


u 


" 2d and 3d Persons, 


denotes Command 


Will, 


in 


the 1st Person, denotes 




Determination 


u 


u 


" 2d and od Persons, 


denotes 


Time, plus Intention 
or Volition. 



We see from the above that if these words are not 
used interchangeably, thej are used at least inter- 
mixedly in our simple and imperative futures. Such 
use betokens an affinity of meaning ; for a clear un- 
derstanding of which, we must recm* to the original 
radical sense of the words. Much of the following 
we take from Eichardson : 



Shall. 
Anglo- 

Shall <; 



/ Anglo-Saxon, scylan. 

j German, scolen, soUen. 



Swedish, skola. 

V Dutch, schuld. 

These words, in theu^ respective dialects, signify to 
owe, to ought, and therefore primarily refer to duties : 
thus, "Hwaet sceal ic singan?" — "What shalll singV^ 
or "What oive Ito singf Again : "Nu sceal he sylf- 
faran" — " Now he himself shall go," or, " Now he 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

himself owe^ to go." And thus, from the radical im- 
port of the word, when joined with the Infinitive 
Mood, Lye deduces its future force. Wachter says 
that the cognate German word scolen, sollen^ embraces 
social duties^ pecuniary clehts^ and all those future cir- 
cumstances (futuros casus) which ought to be, or be- 
come, or be done. Thus the term signifies a com- 
bined sense of duty and futurity. 

Will. 

{ Anglo-Saxon, willan. 

T1777 J Glerman, woUan. 

* I Swedish, wilja. 

V Dutch. willen. 

Wachter refers all these to the root " wol," mean- 
ing well or good. Skinner derives them from the 
Latin volo^ to will: Junius from the Greek f^ovXo- 
jiaL. But pretty evidently "wol," "/3oi;A," and 
" vol" are merely modifications of the same root. 
Will is used with verbs to denote futurity, inasmuch 
as that which is still an object of will — which we 
are still willing, or desirous to do, is not yet had nor 
done. 

Hence we see that while will radically refers to 
our volitions and wishes, and shall to our duties and 
obligations, the idea of futurity inherently and equal- 
ly belongs to both. In view, then, of the fact that 
both equally refer to future time, we may see the 
reason why they would tend to be used indiscrimin- 
ately to express that time. And as in all simple 
and in all well-regulated minds, wishes and duties are 



ENGLISH GRAMIVIAR. 87 

coincident, we may readily conjecture how easily the 
spirit of the expression "I shall (ought to) go" could 
be couched in the words "I will (wish to) go." Such 
would naturally become popular usage. On this 
two-fold basis then — first, the basis of time, because 
both words equally import futurity; and secondly, 
on the basis of the coincidence between wishes and 
duties, the words contain a strong tendency to an in- 
terchangeable use. And in uncritical ages, when 
honest simplicity abounded more then grammatical 
precision, this tendency would develop into preva- 
lent use ; and gradually the idea of time only, or of 
time chiefly, would supervene over the idea of ivill or 
duty, and the future tense of the verb would be formed 
out of a confused blending of ivill and shall. 

We adduce extracts from writers anterior to, or 
contemporary with, the reign of James the First of 
England, to show how indiscriminately shall and ivill 
were used in respect of time without respect to person. 

Alas, that riche shal reve and robbe mannes soule, for the 
love of our Lord. — Pier's Ploughman. 

For folk schal rise on folk and rewme on rewme, and 
erthe-movyngis and hunger scJmlen be by places ; these things 
schulen be begynnynge of sorowis. — Wiclif. 

He can not walk so invisible in a net, but he loill be spied. 

John Fox, 
Now sith that ye have showed to me 
The secret of your mind, 
I shall be plain to you again, 
Like as ye shall me find. 

Sith it is so that ye luill go 

I will not live behind. — Nut Brown Maid, 



o5 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When the French king saw them flee away, he said, " Slay 
these rascals, for thej shall let and trouble us without reason." 

Lord Bemers. 

Of her array the form if I shall write 
Towards her golden hair and rich attire, 
In fretwise couchit with pearlis white. 
And great balas, learning as the fire. 

James I. of Scotland. 

He that hath left the hosier's crafte 

And fall'th to makying shone ; 

The smyth that shall to painting fall, 

His thrift is well nigh done. 

Sir Thomas More. 
With blyth upcast and merry countenance ^ 

The elder sister then spier'd at her guest, 
Gif that sho thoucht by reason difference 
Betwixt that chalmer and her sairy nest, 
"Yea dame," quoth she, " but how long will this last?" 

Robert Henry son. 

First cast out the beam out of thine own eye, and then 
shalt thou see clearly to cast out the mote that is in thy 
brother's eye. — King Ja?nes^s Bible. 

How much more shall your Father which is in heaven 
give good things. — lb. 

Ye shall know them by their fruits. — lb. 

Many shall come from the east and from the west. — lb. 

I must by all means keep this feast that cometh in Jeru- 
salem : but I will return again unto you, if God will. — lb. 

But I will come to you shortly. — lb. 

Thus palpably does a glance at early English lit- 
erature perceive the uncritical use of shall and will 
to denote time. But the same uncritical ages, that 
thus confounded these words in regard of time, were 
periods of fierce passions, strong energies, and rude 



ENGLISH GRAJVIMAR. 89 

habits ; they would therefore be little likely to con- 
found them in cases of stern command and resolute 
purpose. 

The fixed will and hard compulsion would be right- 
ly and vigorously uttered m the proper distinctive 
terms, and (as sho^\Ti below) the almost universal 
usage of the old writers well establishes this. 

Shall^ used properly to signify " command" or the 
pressure of external influence : 

To-morrow ye shall in hunting fare, 
And yede, my daughter, in a chair. 

Ante 1400. Squire of Low Degree, 

Then shall ye go to your even song. 

With tenors and trebles among ; 

A hundred knights truly told. 

Shall play with bowls in alleys cold. — Ih, 

Thou spake right now of thilke traitour Death, 
That in this country all our friends slay'th; 
Have here my truth, as thou art his espy, 
Tell where he is, or thou shalt it aby. — Chaucer, 

And thine old churl also 

My sword shall bite his neck atwo. 

Old Romance^ Guy of Wanvick, 

That castel shall have a sorry none ; 
It shall be hight the mate-griffon. 

Old Romance, Richard Cceiir de Lion, 

Will, used properly to denote determined purpose, 
and strong volition : 

But as long as they ben of foul and unclean living (as 
they ben now) we have no dread of 'em in no kind ; for here 
God will not helpen 'em in no wise. — Sir John 2fandeville, 

" My false gods I will forsake 

And Christendom for thv love take." 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" On that covenant," said Sir Bevis, ^' than 
I will thee love, fair Josyan." 

Old Romance, Sir JBevis of Hamptoun, 

And say I will avenged be 

Of that they did to my father and me. — lb. 

Whoso ivill not help a man at need, 

An evil death mote he die ! — Sir Ferumhras, 

leh have y-hid his shame ere this ; 
I ne will never more y-wis. 

The Seven Wise Masters. 

"Yes, dame," he said, "preciouse! 

Gif thou me help, I will thee spouse." — lb, 

I will not be inquired of by you. — EzeTc. xx. 3. 

Though I should die, yet ivill I not deny thee. 

Matt. xxvi. 35. 

AJmost countless instances might be cited to prove 
that the strong will and stern command did not fail 
to use the strong word — that is, did not err by con- 
founding, but kept the true saying by discriminating 
between will and shall. 

In the Elizabethan age, however, great advances 
were effected in our literature, and consequently in 
our language. Some improvements were made ad- 
visedly. Others came on quietly, perhaps almost 
without the consciousness of those who introduced 
them. A genius like Shakspeare's would instinctive- 
ly discriminate between words. He who could intui- 
tively discern the almost inscrutable lines of differ- 
ence in moral character, would equally well refine 
language, so that it should exactly express those nice 
distinctions ; and therefore to him we may naturally 



ENGLISH GRAlilMAR. 91 

look for a more careful use of shall and icill. Let it 
be remembered J however, that the force of early hab- 
it, the influence of the -preceding literature, and the 
pressure of popular usage, must powerfully affect even 
him ; and therefore it is not meant that he never 
uses shall and icill amiss, but that he does specially 
recognize their difference ; and in those very cases 
where a mind of less subtile discernment might have 
confounded, he has distinguished them. We cite 
several passages (chiefly from his later plays) to illus- 
trate this : 

Have patience, madam; there's no doubt his majesty 
Will soou recover his accustomed health. 

Richard III., Act L, Scene 3. 

They do me wrong, and I will not endure it. — lb. 

I icill not reason what is meant hereby, 
Because I ivill be guiltless of the meaning. 

lb., Act Z, Scene 4. 

You shall have wine enough, my lord, anon. — Ih. 

EiToneous vassal ! the great King of kings 
Hath in the table of his law commanded, 
That thou shalt do no murder ; wilt thou then 
Spurn at His edict, and fulfill a man's ? — 76. 

But I shall see 
The winged vengeance overtake such children. 

King Lear, Act III., Scene 7. 

See it shalt thou never : Fellows, hold the chair : 
Upon these eyes of thine I'll set my foot. — lb. 

And therefore little shall I grace my cause 

In speaking of myself : yet, by your gracious patience, 

I will a round unvarnish'd tale deliver. 

Othello, Act I, Scene 3. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The Moor is of a free and open nature, 

That thinks men honest, that but seem to be so ; 

And will as tenderly be led by the nose, 

As asses are. — Ih, 

He takes her by the palm : Ay, well said, whisper : with 
as little a web as this, will I ensnare as great a fly as Cassio. 
Ay, smile upon her, do ; I will g^y^ thee in thine own court- 
ship. — /6., Act II., Scene 1. 

For I will make him tell the tale anew. 

lb., Act IV., Scene 1. 

'Tis gone, and will not answer. 

Hamlet, Act I., Scene 1. 

Shall I strike at it with my partisan ? 
Do, if it ivill not stand. — lb. 

I pray thee, stay with ns, go not to Wittenberg. 
I shall in all my best obey you, madam. 

lb.. Act I., Scene 2. 

Remember thee ? 
Yea, from the tables of my memory 
Til wipe away all trivial fond records. 
All saws of books, all forms, all pressures past, 
That youth and observation copied there ; 
And thy commandment all alone shall live 
Within the book and volume of my brain. 

lb., Act I., Scene 5. 

If circumstances lead me, I ivill find 

Where truth is hid, though it were hid indeed 

Within the centre. — lb., Act. II., Scene 2. 

You can not, sir, take from me any thing that 
I will more willingly part withal. — lb. 

He that plays the king, shall be welcome ; his majesty 
shall have tribute of me : the adventurous knight shall use 
his foil, and target : the lover shall not sigh gratis ; the hu- 
morous man shall end his part in peace, etc. — lb. 



ENGLISH GRABEVIAR. 93 

I shall obey you : 

And for your part, Ophelia, I do wish, etc. 

75., Act IIL^ Scene 1. 

An examination of the foregoing extracts will 
show that the imperative futm^e (conveying the idea 
of volition and authority) is nicely distinguished from 
the simple future (conveying the idea of time). But 
we must not expect that all contemporary and after 
writers would invariably observe this distinction. 
However great the authority of master-minds might 
be, it would encounter loose habits, and the necessi- 
ties of hurried composition ; and only a long lapse 
of years could avail to establish the right use. Thus 
we find Bacon, Carew, and Shirley accurate in the 
following instances : 

The good parts he hath, he i^iVnearn to show to the full; 
the faults he hath, he ivill learn how to hide, etc. — Bacon, 

Those streaks of doubtful light usher not day, 
But show my sun must set ; no morn 
Shall shine till thou return. — Carew. 

The yellow planets, and the gray 
Dawn, shall attend thee on thy way. — Ih, 

If thine eyes gild my paths, they may forbear 
Their useless shine. (Nymjjh) — My tears will quite 
Extinguish their faint light. — lb. 

Those drops ivill make their beams more clear, 
Love's flames will shine in ev'iy tear. — lb. 

I shall be studious, 
Madam, to give the dignity of your birth 
All the best ornaments which become my fortune. 

Shirley. 

Whereas, in the subjoined passages, Milton, But- 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ler, and Barrow (who generally use tlie auxiliaries 
with care) are faulty : 

Much rather I shall choose 
To live the poorest in my tribe, than richest, 
And he in that calamitous prison left. — Milton. 

You would do well, and if I may advise you, you shall 
give over this unlucky thing called Reason, and betake your- 
self wholly to Revelations. — Butler, 

And so surely shall we do, if we truly love God : for love, 
as it would have the object to be its own, as it intends to 
enjoy it, so it would have it in its best state, and would put 
it thereinto, and would conserve it therein. — Barrow. 

And therefore, with respect to the change effected 
by the great writers of the age of Elizabeth, we think 
the truth will be reached, if we state that their great- 
er precision in the use of shall and ivill commended 
itself to the more fastidious and more scrupulous au- 
thors, while those who did not affect fine writing 
clung to their old ways ; but when, in process of time, 
the former became more appreciated and more pop- 
ular, their usage also became prevalent and author- 
itative. 

In Wallis's Grammar, published about 1699, we 
find the following statement of what was then ac- 
counted a fixed usage : 

" Shall and will indicant Futurum. Quoniam 
autem extraneis satis est cognitu difficile, quando hoc 
vel illud dicendum est (non enim j^'i^oiniscue dicimus 
SHALL and will) ; neque tamen alii quos vidi uUas 
tradidere regulas quibus dirigantur ; has ego tradere 
necessarium duxi, quas qui observaverit hac in re^ 
non aberrabit* 



ENGLISH GRAIOIAE. 95 

Li primis personis, shall simpliciter prsedicentis 
est ; WILL quasi promittentis aut minantis. 

In secundis et tertiis personis, shall promittentis 
est aut minantis ; will simpliciter prsedicentis." 

That is, " Shall and will denote future time. 
But since it is difficult for foreigners to know when 
the one or the other should be used (/or we do not em- 
ploy them indiscriminately)^ and as none have given 
any rules for their direction, I deem it necessary to 
offer the following, and whoso uses them will not err : 

In the first person, shall simply declares, ivill prom- 
ises or threatens. 

In the second and third persons, shall promises or 
threatens ; ivill simply declares." 

Having now traced the use of will and shallj hav- 
ing shown why they are employed for the expression 
of future time, and how they naturally tend to an 
intermixed and confused use, we must inquire, 
First^ Why shallis employed in the first person of the 
simple future, whereas will is used in the second 
and third persons ; and. 
Secondly, Why tvill is used in the first person of the 
imperative future, whereas shall is found in the 
second and third persons'? 

The answer to these questions rests on the basis 
that ivill is essentially subjective, and shall, objective. 
The former refers to inward, self-evolved volitions 
and resolutions ; the latter to obligations or compul- 
sion imposed from without. As the expression of 
time simply, is weaker than the utterance of com- 
mand, and as internal volitions ai'C ordinarily weak- 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

er than external obligations, so ivill (which is the 
representative of volition) is generally a milder term 
than shall (which is the sign of outward compulsion), 
and consequently it became the exponent of the sim- 
ple future tense, and shall the exponent of the im- 
perative future. The normal form of these futures 
would be thus : 

Simple Future Tense. 

1. I will We will 

2. Thou wilt YewiU 

3. He will. TheywiU. 

Imperative Future Tense. 

1. I shall We shall 

2. Thou Shalt Ye shall 

3. He shall. They shall. 

But instead of the normal form will^ in the first 
person of the simple future, authorized use establishes 
shall for the following reasons : When the speaker 
declares his future act simply in respect of time., if he 
use the term shall instead of will.^ he modestly sup- 
presses the idea of self, and represents the action as 
about to proceed under some external objective in- 
fluence. Thus shall.^ in the first person of the simple 
future, is much less egotistical than will would be, 
and its use indicates refinement of thought, and a 
higher state of culture. In like manner ivill.^ which 
is used in the second and third persons of the simple 
future, is essentially courteous and complimentary ; 
because, although its primary purpose be simply to 
declare that the parties are about to do an act, it 



ENGLISH GRAIMMAR. 97 

refers that act to their spontaneous wills, not to out- 
ward constraint. Thus it also indicates refinement. 
In the imperative future good usage employs ivill in 
the first person; because, by means of this tense 
(which is generally a stern and mandatory one, and 
always more positive than the simple future), the 
speaker declares that he intends to act according to 
his own subjective will ; that the purpose or resolu- 
tion is his ; he made it — he evolved it — and he wills 
to do it. And for similar strength and truthfulness 
of expression, shall is used in the second and third 
persons; because the parties addressed and spoken 
of are represented as about to act under outward 
authority and compulsion. It denies that what is 
to be done or sufiered will proceed from their wills ; 
on the contrary, it implies that it must be done or 
suffered against their wills. Hence, it dispenses with 
the refinements of courtesy, and employs terms of 
positivism and force. And thus is the modern form 
of the futures philosophically correct. 

The Eegular Verb. 

The active voice of the regular verb is, in part, 

formed by the addition of inflectional terminations; 

as, ^om. love is made loved; and partly by means of 

the auxiliaries. The following is a fuU conjugation : 

Active Voice. 

Infinitive Mood. 

To love. 

Present Participle. Past Participle, 

Loving. Loved. 

Gr 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense, 

I love We love 

Thou lovest Ye love 

He loves. They love. 

Imperfect Tense. 
I loved We loved 

Thou lovedst Ye loved 

He loved. They loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
I have loved We have loved 

Thou hast loved Ye have loved 

He has loved. They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
I had loved We had loved 

Thou hadst loved Ye had loved 

He had loved. They had loved. 

Imperfect Simple Future Tense. 
I shall love We shall love 

Thou wilt love Ye will love 

He will love. They will love. 

Imperfect Imperative Future Tense. 
I will love We will love 

Thou shalt love Ye shall love 

He shall love. They shall love. 

Perfect Simple Future Tense. 
I shall have loved We shall have loved 

Thou wilt have loved Ye will have loved 
He will have loved. They will have loved 



ENGLISH GRAMIVIAK. 99 

Perfect Imperative Future Tense. 
I will have loved We will have loved 

Thou shalt have loved Ye shall have loved 
He shall have loved. They shall have loved. 

Subjunctive Mood. 
Present Tense. 
If I love If we love 

If thou love If ye love 

K he love. If they love. 

Imperfect Tense. 
If I loved If we loved 

If thou lovedst If ye loved 

If he loved. If they loved. 

The remaining tenses of the Subjunctive Mood 
are similar to the corresponding tenses of the Indica- 
tive Mood, mth a proper conjunction added, 

BXPERATTVE MoOD. 

1. Let me love Let us love 

2. Love thou Love ye 

3. Let him love. Let them love. 

The form of a Potential Mood. 
Present Tense. 
I may or can love We may or can love 

Thou mayst or canst love Ye may or can love. 
He may or can love. They may or can love. 

Imperfect Tense. 
I might, could, would, or should love 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst love 
He might, could, would, or should love. 



100 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 

We might, could, would, or should love 
Ye might, could, would, or should love 
They might, could, would or should love* 

Perfect Tense. 
I may or can have loved 
Thou mayst or canst have loved 
He may or can have loved. 

We may or can have loved 
Ye may or can have loved 
They may or can have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
I might, could, would, or should have loved 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have loved 
He might, could, would, or should have loved. 

We might, could, would, or should have loved 
Ye might, could, would, or should have loved 
They might, could, would, or should have loved. 

Passive Voice. 
The passive voice has only one simple form — the 
perfect participle — loved. All the other parts are 
compounded of this participle and the verb to he. 
The conjugation is as follows : 

Infinitive Mood. 

Present Tense. 

To be loved. 

Participles. 
Present^ Being loved. 
Perfect^ Loved. 



english grammar. 101 

Indicative Mood. 

Present Tense. 
I am loved We are loved 

Thou art loved Ye are loved 

He is loved. They are loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 
I was loved We were loved 

Thou wast loved Ye were loved 

He was loved. They were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
I have been loved We have been loved 

Thou hast been loved Ye have been loved 
He has been loved. They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
I liad been loved We had been loved 

Thou hadst been loved Ye had been loved 
He had been loved. They had been loved. 

Imperfect Simple Future Tense. 
I shall be loved We shall be loved 

Thou wilt be loved Ye will be loved 

He will be loved. They will be loved. 

Imperfect Imperative Future Tense. 
I will be loved We will be loved 

Thou shalt be loved Ye shall be loved 

He shall be loved. They shall be loved. 

Perfect Simple Future Tense. 
I shall have been loved We shall have been loved 
Thou wilt have been loved Ye will have been loved 
He will have been loved. They will have been loved. 



102 ENGLISH GRAMIVIAR. 

Perfect Imperative Future Tense. 
I will have been loved We will have been loved 
Thou shalt have been loved Ye will have been loved 
He shall have been loved. They will have been loved. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Present Tense. 
If I be loved If we be loved 

If thou be loved If ye be loved 

If he be loved. If they be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 
If I were loved If we were loved 

If thou wert loved If ye were loved 

If he were loved. If they were loved. 

The remaining tenses are like those of the Indic- 
ative Mood, with a proper conjunction added. 

The fokm of a Potential Mood. 

Present Tense. 
I may or can be loved 
Thou mayst or canst be loved 
He may or can be loved. 

We may or can be loved 
Ye may or can be loved 
They may or can be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 
I might, could, would, or should be loved 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be loved 
He might, could, would, or should be loved. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAH. 



103 



We might, could, would, or should be loved 
Ye might, could, would, or should be loved 
They might, could, would, or should be loved. 

Perfect Tense, 
I may or can have been loved 
Thou mayst or canst have been loved 
He may or can have been loved. 

We may or can have been loved 
Ye may or can have been loved 
They may or can have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense, 
I might, could, would, or should have been loved 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been 

loved 
He might, could, would, or should have been loved. 

Irregular Verbs. 
The irregular verbs are numerous; an alphabet- 
ical list of them is here given. 



Present. 


Past, 


Participle Fast, 


Abide 


abode 


abided. 


Am 


was 


been. 


Arise 


arose 


arisen. 


Awake 


awoke 


awaked. 


Bear (to bring 


bare 


born. 


forth) 






Bear (to carry) 


bore 


borne. 


Beat 


beat 


beaten. 


Begin 


began 


begun. 


Behold 


beheld 


beholden or beheld, 



104 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present. 


Bast. 


Fartidple Past. 


Bend 


bent 


bent or bended* 


Bereave 


bereft 


bereft or be- 
reaved. 


Beseech 


besought 


besought* 


Bid 


bade 


bidden. 


Bind 


bound 


bound or bound- 
en.f 


Bite 


bit 


bitten. 


Bleed 


bled 


bled or blooded. 


Blow 


blew 


blown. 


Break 


broke 


broken. 


Breed 


bred 


bred. 


Bring 


brought 


brought 

[broughten]. 


Build 


built 


built. 


Burst 


burst 


burst or bursten. 


Buy 


bought 


bought [bought- 


Cast 


cast 


cast. J en ?] 


Catch 


caught 


caught. 


Chide 


chid 


chidden. 


Choose 


chose 


chosen. 



* Perhaps more properly hesougliten ; the termination in en 
appearing to be proper to those verbs whose past ends in ought } 
as, fought, foughten. Indeed, more than two-thirds of the irreg- 
ular verbs have still this termination in the participle, and pro- 
bably iij many more it has been dropped merely from the En- 
glish habit of contracting words in speaking them. 

\ As "Let us give, as we are most bounden, continual thanks," 
etc. — Liturgy. 

% Verbs which have the prseter and present alike in the first 
person, nevertheless make edst in the second person singular ; as. 
/ cast, thou castedst. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



105 



Present. 


Past, 




Pai^ticiple Past, 


Cleave (to ad- 


clave. 






here) 








Cleave (to split) 


clove or 


cleft 


cloven or cleft* 


CHrnb 


clomb or climbed climbed. 


Cling 


clang* or clung 


clung. 


Clothe 


clothed 




clad. 


Come 


came 




come. 


Cost 


cost 




cost. 


Creep 


cropet or crept 


crept. 


Crow- 


crew 




crowed or crown. 


Cut 


cut 




cut. 


Dare 


durst 




dared. 


Deal 


dealt 




dealt. 


Dig 


dug 




dug. 


Do 


did 




done. 


Draw 


drew 




drawn. 


Drink 


drank 




drunken. 


Drive 


drove 




driven. 


Dwell 


dwelt 




dwelt. 


Eat 


ate 




eaten. 


FaU 


fell 




fallen. 


Feed 


fed 




fed. 


Fight 


fought 




foughten. 


Find 


found 




found. 


Flee 


fled 




fled. 


Fling 


flung 




flung. 


Fly 


flew 




flown. 


Fold 


folded 




folden. 



* Lowth gives cla7ig as the prseter, and from analogy, at any 
rate, it ought to be so. f Crope is become obsolete. 



106 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



P?'esent. 


Past. 




^Participle Past. 


Forget 


forgot 




forgotten. 


Forsake 


forsook 




forsaken. 


Freeze 


froze 




frozen. 


Freight 


freighted 


fraught. 


Get 


got 




gotten. 


Gild 


gilt 




gilt. 


Gird 


girt or girded 


girt or girded. 


Give 


gave 




given. 


Go 


went 




gone. 


Grave 


graved 




graven or gi'aved. 


Grind 


ground 




ground. 


Grow 


grew 




grown. 


Hang 


hung or 


hanged 


hung or hanged. 


Have 


had 




had. 


Hear 


heard 




heard. 


Help 


holp or 


helped 


holpen or helped. 


Hew 


hewed 




hewn. 


Hide 


hid 




hidden or hid. 


Hit 


hit 




hitten. 


Hold 


held 




holden. 


Hurt 


hurt 




hurt. 


Keep 


kept 




kept. 


Kneel 


knelt or 


kneeled 


knelt or kneeled. 


Knit 


knitted 


or knit 


knitted or knit. 


Know 


knew 




known. 


Lade 


laded 




laden. 


Lay (to place) 


laid 




laid. 


Lead 


led 




led. 


Leave 


left 




left. 


Lend 


lent 




lent. 



ENGLISH GKABUIAR. 



107 



Present. 


Past. 


Participle Past, 


Lie (to recline) 


lay 


lain. 


Light 


Ut 


Ht/ 


Lose 


lost 


lost. 


Make 


made 


made. 


Meet 


met 


met. 


Melt 


melted 


molten. 


Mow 


mowed 


mown. 


Pass 


passed 


past. 


Pay 


paid 


paid. 


Pen 


pent or penned 


pent or penned. 


Put 


put 


put. 


Quit 


quit or quitted 


quit or quitted. 


Read 


read or redde* 


read or redde. 


Rend 


rent 


rent. 


Rid 


ridded 


rid. 


Ride 


rode 


ridden. 


Ring 


rang or rung 


rung. 


Rise 


rose 


risen. 


Rive 


rived 


riven. 


Run 


ran 


run. 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn. 


Say 


said 


said. 


See 


saw 


seen. 


Seek 


sought 


sought [sought- 
en?]. 


Seethe 


seethed 


sodden. 



* The latter mode of spelling having been adopted by such 
TN'i'iters as Bishop Horsley and Lord Byron, has a claim to no- 
tice here. As it clears an ambiguity, their example has been 
followed by some other authors also. 



108 



ENGLISH GKAMMAE. 



Present. 


^; Past. 


Participle Past 


Sell 


sold 


sold. 


Send 


sent 


sent. 


Set 


set 


set. 


Shake 


shook 


shaken. 


Shape 


shaped 


shapen. 


Shave 


shaved 


shaven. 


Shear 


shore or 


sheared shorn. 


Shed 


shed 


shed. 


Shine 


shone 


shone. 


Shoe 


shod 


shodden. 


Shoot 


shot 


shotten. 


Show- 


showed 


shown. 


Shrink 


shrank 


shrunken. 


Shut 


shut 


shutten. 


Sing 


sang 


sung. 


Sink 


sunk 


sunken. 


Sit 


sat 


sitten. 


Slay 


slew 


slain. 


Sleep 


slept 


slept. 


Slide 


^lid 


slidden. 


Sling 


slung or 


slang slung. 


Slink 


slunk 


slunken. 


Slit 


slit 


slitten. 


Smite 


smote 


smitten. 


Sow 


sowed 


sown. 


Speak 


spoke 


spoken. 


Speed 


sped 


sped. 


Spell 


spelt 


spelt. 


Spend 


spent 


spent. 


Spill 


spilt 


spilt. 



^ENGLISH GRAIVIIMAE. 



109 



Present. 

Spin 

Spit 

Split 

Spread 

Spring 

Stand 

Steal 

Stick 

Sting 

Stink 

Stride 

Strike 

String 

Strive 

Strew 

Strow 

Swear 

Sweat 

Sweep 

Swell 

Swim 

S^vdng 

Swink 

Take 

Teach 

Tear 

Tell 

Think 

Thrive 



Past. 


Participle Past. 


span 


spun. 


spat 


spitten. 


split 


splitten. 


spread 


spread. 


sprang 


sprung. 


stood 


stood. 


stole 


stolen. 


stuck 


stuck. 


stung 


stung. 


stank 


stunk. 


strode 


stridden. 


strrck 


stricken. 


strung 


strung. 


strove 


striven. 


strewed 


strewn. 


strowed 


strown. 


swore 


sworn. 


swet 


swet. 


swept 


swept. 


swelled 


swollen. 


swam 


swum. 


swang 


swung. 


swank 


swiink. 


took 


taken. 


taught 


taught. 


tore 


torn. 


told 


told. 


thought 


thought or 




thoughten, 


thi*ove 


thriven. 



110 

Present. 

Throw 

Thrust 

Tread 

Wake 

Wax 

Wear 

Weave 

Weep 

Wet 

Win 

Wind 

Work 

Wring 
Write 



Adverb. 

The Anglo-Saxons recognized the resemblance in 
office between the adjective and the adverb; for as 
they termed the first Namer gerena, the noun's com- 
panion, so they termed the adverb ponber gerena, 
the verb's companion, and a better definition of it 
could hardly be given. 

It is joined to a verb primarily, and also to an 
adjective, and sometimes to another adverb, to mod- 
ify the meaning. They are divided by grammarians 
into those of 



ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 


Past. 


Participle Past. 


threw 


thrown. 


thrust 


thrusten. 


trod 


trodden. 


woke 


waked. 


waxed or woxe 


waxen. 


wore 


worn. 


wove 


woven. 


wept 


wept. 


wet or wetted 


wet or wetted 


won 


won. 


wound 


wound. 


wrought or 


wrought or 


worked 


worked. 


wrung 


wrung. 


wrote 


written. 



1. Number : as once^ twice 

2. Order : as first, secondly, etc, 

3. Place : as here, there, etc. 



thrice, etc. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ill 

4. Time : as now^ hereafter^ hitherto^ etc. 

5. Quantity : as enough^ mucli^ etc. 

6. Quality : as ivisely^ cliaritahly^ etc. 

7. Doubt : as jperha^s^ possibly^ etc. 

8. Affirmation : as yes, verily , etc. 

9. Negation : as 720, not, etc. 

10. Interrogation : as how, why, etc. 

11. Comparison : as almost, alike, etc. 

Some adjectives are occasionally used as adverbs ; 
as. This is better done than the last. 

Many adverbs are compared like adjectives; as, 
soon, sooner, soojiest — far, farther, farthest — ve'i^, ver^ 
ier, veriest. Those ending in ly are usually compared 
by means of the words more and most, which are the 
comparative and superlative of much. 

Preposition. 

Prepositions are so called from the Latin words 
prce ponere, to place before, because they are usually 
placed before the words they govern. 

They are used to show the relation of one thing 
to another, and thus serve to connect words. In 
their original and literal acceptation they seem to 
have denoted relations of place ; but they are now 
used Jiguratively to express other relations. For ex- 
ample ; as they who are above have, in several re- 
spects, the advantage of such as are below, preposi- 
tions expressing high and low places are used for 
superiority and inferiority in general; as, "He is 
above disguise ;" " We serve under a good master ;" 
" He rules over a willing people ;" " We should do 
nothing beneath our character." 



112 



ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 



In English tEese are 


the chief: 




About 


Behind 


From 


Over 


Above 


Below 


In 


Through 


After 


Beneath 


Into 


To 


Against 


Beside 


Like 


Under 


Amidst 


Between 


Near 


With 


Among 


Beyond 


Of 


Within 


At 


By 


Off 


Without. 


Before 


For 


On 





Except^ from its government of a case, would per-» 
haps have some claim to rank as a preposition, but 
it appears more properly a contraction of the active 
participle of a verb transitive ; for excepting- him is. 
identical in sense with except him. 

Prepositions are often used in composition with 
verbs in order to modify the sense. Not unfrequent^ 
ly Latin prepositions are compounded with Teutonic 
verbs, as m^erweave, m^e/ieave. These are insepara- 
ble under any circumstances. But in some cases, 
when both simples are English, the preposition is 
movable, as in the German, although not quite to 
the same extent ; as, 

"Come, Camillo, 
I will respect thee as a father, if 
Thou hearst my life off hence — " 

Of the same kind are run after ^ call in^ and many 
more which will readily occur to every one's recol- 
lection. Some verbs have a different sense even 
when given with the same preposition, according as 
it is separated or not ; thus, to overshoot and to shoot 



ENGLISH GRAMJVIAR. 113 

over^ have a very different signification, and the same 
may be observed of understand and stand under; ovei^- 
look and look over ; outrun and run out. 

There is a peculiar propriety in noting the use of 
the prepositions hy and with. By signifies agency^ as 
contradistinguished from vntli^ denoting instrument- 
ality. Thus : 

In one rude clash he struck the lyre. 

And swept with hurried hand the strings. — Collins, 

When bold Sir Plume had drawn Clarissa down, 
Chloe stepp'd in, and kill'd hiin with a frown. 

Pope, 

If Rome was serv'd, and glorious, careless they 
By whom, — Thompson, 

What greater evil can I wish my foe 

Than Ms full draught of pleasure from a cask 

Unbroached hy just authority, ungaug'd 

By temperance, hy reason unrefined. — Young. 

Conjunction. 
Conjunctions, as their name imports, are connect- 
ives, generally of the subordinate members of a sen- 
tence, sometimes of words only. They are divided 
into 

1. Copulative, which connect and carry on the 
meaning through the limbs of a sentence ; as, / could 
not go BECAUSE / was unwell^ and therefore he 
promised to come to me, 

2, Disjunctive, which express some degree of 
opposition between the parts they connect ; as, / 
would have gone though / was univell^ but he was not 
at home. 

H 



114 ENGLISH GRAIMMAE. 

It must be observed with regard to these last parts 
of speech, that many words according to their im- 
mediate meaning will be adverbs, prepositions, or 
conjunctions : thus, for^ when put transitively, is a 
preposition ; as, it is not fok hira^ i. e., it is not to 
be his property, but / went^ for he called me^ signi- 
fies because he called me, and for is then a conjunc- 
tion. In the phrase / am then to conclude that you 
are 'determined^ then is a conjunction ; but in the fol- 
lowing passage it becomes an adverb of time : "Mar- 
garet had been to him a purely ideal object during 
the years of his youth; death had again rendered 
her such. Imagination had beautified and idolized 
her then; faith sanctified and glorified her now." 

"•SiiTce we must part, let us do it peaceably." Here 
since is a conjunction. 

"I have not seen him since that time." Plere it 
is an adverb. 

The foUovring is a list of the principal conjunc- 
tions : 

Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, 
because, therefore, wherefore. 

Disjunctive, But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, 
Unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding. 

Our language abounds in conjunctions, and hence 
is admirably well fitted for processes of argument, 
investigation, and science. It is to these, indeed, 
that this part of speech is peculiarly and indispens- 
ably necessary. Their abundance in English indi- 
cates its high culture, " for until men begin to think 
in a train, and to carry their reasonings to a consid- 



ENGLISH GKAMMAJR. 115 

erable length, it is not probable that they would 
make use of conjunctions, or of any other connect- 
ives." Ignorant people and children generally speak 
in short and separate sentences. The same thing is 
true of barbarous nations; and hence uncultivated 
languages are not well supplied with connecting par- 
ticles. The Greeks were the greatest reasoners that 
ever appeared in the world ; and their language, ac- 
cordingly, abounds more than any other in connect- 
ives. 

Interjection. 

Interjections are words throivn between the parts 
of a sentence to express the feelings of the speaker. 
They are few in our language, for we are a people 
little given to exclamation: Oh! Ah! and Aim! 
form nearly the sum of them. Some imperative 
moods of verbs are used something in the manner 
of an interjection ; SiS,See! Behold! siwdiHail! which 
last is from a Saxon verb, and is a wish of health to 
the person so addressed. Lo! is probably an ab- 
breviation of look! as, yye is to be found in old 
writers, and Harh ! is from Hearken, The rest are 
but inarticulate expressions of impatience or doubt, 
which have puzzled orthographers to spell ; as, ^^/sA / 
or pshaiD ! or hah ! or wn ! or hum ! or hm, and are not 
worth farther notice. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SYNTAX. 

This word, derived from the Greek avvra^ig, 
which signifies an orderly arrangement together, suf- 
ficiently explains the object of all those rules of 
grammar which are classed under this head. It is 
here that the peculiarities of a language, or, in other 
words, its idioms are to be found ; and the modifica^ 
tions which every nation is wont to make of the uni- 
versal rules, constitute what is called the genius of 
the language. It is the fault of English writers very 
generally that they do not sufiiciently attend to this ; 
and the consequence is that it is rare to find a racy 
idiomatic style. The sounding march of the Latin 
periods charms the ear of the scholar, and he tries to 
assimilate his own language to that which he has 
long studied and admired : but the want of distinct- 
ive terminations to many of the cases of nouns, ren- 
ders this a vain attempt ; and if we would writei 
perspicuously, and at the same time with a force 
which shall impress itself on the memory, we must 
use the tools which our rude forefathers left us ; we 
must write as we speak our mother tongue. 

As Syntax denotes an orderly construction of 
words in sentences, and as this can be orderly only 
inasmuch as it fully presents their proper relations, 
so must Syntax necessarily treat of Concord, Gov- 
ernment, and Place ; becauee under these heads the 
relations of words are comprehended. The follow- 
ing pages will briefly explain the chief rules of En- 
glish construction: 



ENGLISH GRAIVIMAR, 117 

I. Concord. 

EULE I. 

Concord of the Verb ivitli its Nominative, 
The peculiarity of the English on this point, con- 
sists in its uniform arrangement of the nominative he- 
fore the verb ; for as the accusative of the substan- 
tive has no distinctive termination, it would be im- 
possible to make a sentence perspicuous if another 
arrangement were adopted. The arrangement, there- 
fore, made use of by some modern writers by which 
the nominative is displaced, is bad, and in proof of 
this we may observe that it is never so used in com- 
mon speech. Peter ivas more confident than was 
John, will never be a mode of expression adopted 
in conversation, nor has it ever been so by the great 
masters of our language. Take, for example, South- 
ey, in that most idiomatic of all his T^aitings, " The 
Doctor," " To those who are acquainted with the 
history of the Grandgousier's royal family, I need 
not explain what that purpose ivas^ Now this sen- 
tence would have been despoiled of its genuine En- 
glish-ness had it been written " what ivas that pur- 
pose." Therefore, although an ear accustomed to 
the roundness of the Latin period may shrink from 
a small word at the end of a sentence, if the writer 
would be English in his style (and if he be not, his 
is not a good style), he must be content to follow his 
forefathers in this as well as in trial by jury, and 
many other things which we have not yet found it 
easy to amend. 



118 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

It may be difficult to believe tliat an arrangement 
of language which we are daily hearing, is the true 
and elegant one ; and yet if, in manner and in dress, 
simplicity and ease are synonymous with elegance, 
why should we wonder that the same must be the 
case with language? I will choose two sentences 
from a popular writer* to exemplify both the faulty 
and the idiomatic arrangement of the verb and nom- 
inative : few will hesitate in deciding which is more 
agreeable to the ear. "None more than he ivill grieve, 
for an hour at least, when I am dead." Here the 
verb and the nominative are too widely separated 
for perspicuity ; and the natural arrangement would 
have been, ^^none will grieve more than he will." 
How easily and pleasantly, on the other hand, does 
the following sentence read off: "All this regard to 
trifles was not frivolity — ^it was a trait of character, 
it belonged to the artist ; without it he would not 
have had the habit of mind which made him what 
he was." In this the verb constantly follows close 
upon the nominative, and the effect is most pleasing : 
the sentence never lags, but is thoroughly idiomatic 
English. 

Sometimes, for greater emphasis, where the style 
is highly rhetorical, it is allowed to place an accusa^ 
tive in the first part of the sentence. " Your coun- 
try is desolate, your cities are burned with fire, your 
land strangers devour it in your presence." Here, 
as for is understood before your land^ as may be seen 
by another passage. "Make us gods which shall go 
* Sir E. Bulwer Lytton. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 119 

before us, for as for this Moses, the man that brought 
us out of the land of Egypt, we wot not what is be- 
come of him." 

A whole sentence may occasionally be the nom- 
inative to a verb. Thus : "^ desire to excel others in 
learning and virtue is commendable." " That warm 
climates shoidd accelerate the growth of the human body, 
and shorten its duration^ is very reasonable to be- 
lieve." 

We often find the infinitive mood put as the nom- 
inative case to a verb ; thus, " To lie is base." The 
infinitive mood, as has already been noticed, is the 
abstract idea of an action, taking the part of a sub- 
stantive, as, " To say that a man lyeth^ is as much as 
to say that he is brave toward God, and a coward 
toward man." "The more he knows the more he 
is desirous of knowing, and yet the farther he ad- 
vances in knowledge the better he understands how 
little he can attain, and the more deeply he feels that 
God alone can satisfy the infinite desires of an im- 
mortal soul. To understand this is the height and 
perfection of philosophy." 

Rule II. 

Concord of the Adjective with its Substantive. 

As the English adjective is indeclinable, the agree- 
ment is understood rather than expressed. It is not 
easy to say how the English language came to stand 
alone in this particular, for the Anglo-Saxon adjec- 
tive is declined very amply. 



120 ENGLISH GRAIVIMAR. 

Rule III, 

Concord of the Relative ivith its Antecedent, 
The Relative agrees with its antecedent in gender, 
number, and person. 

The usual concord of the relative in gender^ num- 
her^ and person with its antecedent, is very easily ob- 
served in English ; for it is subject to no apparent 
change of number or person, but merely one of gen- 
der and case : but this last is not necessarily the 
same as that of the antecedent : thus, in the phrase. 
The man ivhom you saiv said — the man is the nomina- 
tive of said; you is the nominative of saw, and ivhom 
is the accusative governed by the transitive verb saw. 
The relative in this phrase supplies a whole limb of 
a sentence, for without its aid we must say, you saw 
a certain man, and that man said. Reverse the sen- 
tence, and let tJie man be the nominative to saw, as — > 
the man who saw you said — you becomes the accusative, 
and the relative is in the nominative case, for the 
verb transitive no longer exercises its influence on it, 
but on another word, i. e. you. 

The rule may be termed universal, for wherever 
there is a relative capable of declension, it must hold 
good ; but the mistakes so frequently made in the 
cases of the relative show that its use is one of some 
difficulty to the mere English scholar. This difficul- 
ty may probably be avoided by analyzing the sen- 
tence so far as to learn which word is governed by 
the verb transitive, for it has already been seen that 
though the substantive does not alter its termination 



ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 121 

in the accusative case, it is nevertheless as properly 
in that case as the neuter noun in the Greek or Lat- 
in, which has its nominative and accusative alike. 
If the government of the verb transitive fall upon a 
substantive, then the relative escapes from its influ- 
ence, and, if no other circumstance interfere, will be 
in the nominative. Or it may be received in anoth- 
er way ; for if the relative clearly be the agent, then 
it must be the nominative to the verb.. The follow- 
ing sentence will show it in all its cases : " We may 
well believe that they who77i faith has sanctified, and 
who upon their departure join the spirits of the just 
' made perfect,' may at once be removed from all con- 
cern with this world of probation, except so far as 
might add to their own happiness, and be made con- 
ducive to the good of others, in the ways of Provi- 
dence. But by parity of reason it may be concluded 
that the sordid and the sensual, they whose afiections 
have been set upon worldly things, and who are of 
the earth earthy,, will be as unable to rise above the 
earth as they would be incapable of any pure and 
spiritual enjoyment."* Here, faith is the nominative 
or agent, and sanctifies certain persons, represented 
by the relative pronoun ivhom^ which is put in the 
accusative case because it receives the influence of 
the transitive verb ; these in their turn Join the spir- 
its of the just, and thus become the agents or nomin- 
ative to the verbyom. 

When the relative does duty for two antecedents 
of different genders, one of which is neuter, then the 
* Southey. 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

indeclinable word that is substituted for who or which; 
as, the CART and the man that you met on the road : for 
the English do not willingly attribute gender to in- 
animate things; and by this compromise we may 
avoid involving the cart and the man in the same cat- 
egory, for that is equally applicable to all genders ; as. 

The child may rue that was unborn, 
The hunting of that day. 

Ballad of Chevy Chase. 

I asked him whether it were the custom in his country 
to say THE THING that was not ? — Swift. 

In Florence was it from a casement thrown me, 
Wrapt in a paper which contained the name 
Of HER that threw it — Shakspeare, 

Plutus himself 

That knows the linct and multiplying medicine, 
Hath not in Nature's ni3^stery more science 
Than I have in that ring — lb. 

A man is an ill husband of his honor that entereth into 
any action the failing wherein may disgrace him more than 
the carrying of it through can honor him. — Bacon. 

GOVERNIVIENT AND PlACE, OR ARRANGEMENT OP 

THE Parts of Speech. 

As the loss of inflectional terminations abridges the 
liberty of inversion in the structure of English sen- 
tences, loosition determines, in most cases, the regimen 
of words. Hence the following rules necessarily com- 
prehend both place and government : 

1, Article, 
The proper place of the article v\ English, as in 
Greek, is immediately before the adjective, if there 



ENGLISH GKAMIVIAR. 123 

be one, if not, before the noun ; but, as in the Greek, 
it is often prefixed to a whole phrase, which, taken 
together, forms the nominative to a verb ; as, " The 
speaking to the people uxis ivell timed,'''' It does not, 
however, hke the Greek, transform the participle 
into an active agent, or an individual ; but makes 
the participle present a neuter substantive; as. The 
vvrNTONG is easier than the preserving a conquest, 

2. Substantive. 
The common Latin rule, that when two substan- 
tives of diiierent signification come together, the last 
will be in the genitive case, is reversed in Enghsh ; 
for the substantive in the genitive case stands first ; 
as, "I have to-night wooed Margaret, the lady Herd's 
gentlewoman, by the name of Hero ; she leans me out 
of her mistress's chamber idndow^'' etc. 

In all debates where virtues bear a part, 
Not one but nods and talks of Jonson's art^ 
Of Shahspeare^ s nature, and of Cowley" s wit, 
How Beaumont's judgment checked what Tletcher writ. 

Pope, 

This arrangement of the genitive case is derived 
from the Anglo-Saxon, where we find commonly 
such phrases as Eober gelearan, God's belief, or 
the belief in God ; Eober pillan, God's mil, etc. ; 
and it is still to be found also in the German ; as,. Ich 
will Pilar aons herz erharten — Iicill harden Pharaoh's 
heart, though in that language, as in the Anglo-Sax- 
on, the Latin arrangement of the second noun in the 
genitive case is also used. In English, where the 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

repetition of sibilants becomes unpleasant to the ear, 
tlie preposition of is substituted, and we say the will 
of God^ instead of GocVs ivilL In the construction of 
a sentence these two modes of expression form a 
pleasing variety, and the writer will do well to avail 
himself of both. The following passage ov/es half 
its beauty and pathos to the skillful use of the geni- 
tive case : " We went once more to the bed, and 
there by his master's face sate the poor dog. He had 
crept softly up from his usual resting-place, and when 
he saw us draw aside the curtain, he looked at us so 
wistfully, that — no, I can not go on ! there is a re- 
ligion in a good man's death that we can not babble 
to all the world." 

Sometimes the genitive is used alone, the second 
substantive being understood ; as, / have been staying 
at your friend' s—i. e., at your friend's house. That is 
Charles's hat, hut I thought it had been Henry's — i. e., 
Henry's hat, I visited St. Paul's — i. e., St, Paul's Ca- 
thedral, . 

According to the Latin rule, also, two or more 
substantives relating to the same thing will be in the 
same case ; but the English has this peculiarity, that 
the genitive termination is appended only to the last 
of them ; as, the Archhishoio of Canterbury's opinion — 
King William and Queen Mary's reign. It would 
seem that in these cases the whole phrase is consid- 
ered as amalgamated into a single word, in the fash- 
ion of some German compounds, and then the term- 
ination peculiar to the case is added at the end of it, 
as it would be to any other word. 



ENGLISH GRAIMMAR. 125 

3. Adjective, 

The usual place of the adjective m English is after 
the article, and before the noun ; but if two or three 
be predicated of the same substantive, it is sometimes 
allowed to place them after it for the sake of strength- 
ening the expression by some addition to the phrase ; 
as, A man gentle ^'peaceahle^ and benevolent in no ordinary 
degree. It is, however, a somewhat forced arrange- 
ment, and is unpleasing to the ear if often repeated. 

With the prefixed, an adjective frequently changes 
into a noun of number ; as. The wise are cautions. 

4. Pronoun. 

The pronoun being distinguished by the inflections 
of the different cases, admits of more transposition 
than the substantive which it represents ; and some- 
times, in rhetorical speech and poetry, the accusa- 
tive may be placed first with considerable effect ; as 
in the speech of Paul to the Athenians, where the 
translators have availed themselves ^Y^ih. much skill 
of this power — " Whom ye ignorantly worship, Hiiii 
declare I unto you." Milton, too, has used this con- 
struction ; but still, though the liberty may be per- 
mitted, it is not to be repeated too often, for it is not 
the natural arranoement of the words : the Enoiish 
language is of easy march, each word taking as near- 
ly as possible the place which the sense requires, and 
our ears do not easily tolerate inversions of the sen- 
tence, which, excepting on any particular occasions, 
make a harsh and labored style. 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

The neuter pronoun it plays a large part in the 
idiom of the language : it forms the impersonal verbs, 
as they are, perhaps improperly, termed ; as, it rains^ 
it freezes^ etc., and is joined with other verbs where 
the word thing might be substituted for it; as, it af- 
fords me 'pleasure^ i. e., this thing affords me pleasure. 

It is frequently used in the room of that or this, 
even when it relates to masculine or feminine names, 
and this preference of the neuter is a peculiarity gf 
the English, for example : 

"WliowaszVf — 
Festo tlie jester, my lord." 
Again, 

"What kind of woman is'^f"* 

It is also used for distinction ; as. Which is it ? your 
brother John or Charles ? It is John, It enters also 
into phrases such as, how is it % how fares it with you f 
where it applies to the whole state of things. It is 
sad, IT is strange, etc., seems to express only that the 
thing is sad, strange, etc. 

5. Verh. 

The English follows the universal rule as to the 
verb substantive, and has the same case before and 
after it ; " It is I, be not afraid." The infinitive, 
however, of this, as of other verbs, never admits of a 
nominative, and is joined with an accusative, govern- 
ed by the preceding verb transitive ; as, / knew him 
to he a man of honor. 

Verbs of giving, lending, promising, obtaining, and 

* Shakspeare. 



ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 127 

the like,* govern a dative of the person and an accu- 
sative of the thing ; as, / gave Mm a hook ; I lent him 
a horse ; I j^romised thee forgiveness ; He afforded them 
protection. In these examples it is evident that, 
though him^ thee, them, are the same in form as the 
accusative, yet that the substantives hook, horse, etc., 
are in fact the patients or things given, lent, etc., and 
therefore in the accusative case, while the last-men- 
tioned pronoun or person is the receiver of the thing 
thus given, etc. The two persons therefore stand in 
the relation of giving and receiving, and the person 
to whom a thing is given (datum) is said to be in the 
dative case. 

All other verbs transitive govern, that is, are fol- 
lowed by, an accusative ; as, I called hi3I ; they fought 
(THEM ; thou hast heard jvee. 

Verbs intransitive are not followed by any case ; 
for their action is limited to the subject, and does 
not extend to any object. Such are to sleej), to re- 
dine, etc. 

The verb to he, when it signifies possession, will 
have a genitive case after it ; as. That is his ; the grapes 
WERE the gardener'^s. 

These are elliptical sentences. The genitives his 
and gardener'' s have some word — as property, for ex- 
ample — understood. 

The participle present, when preceded by an arti- 
cle, becomes in some sort a substantive, and conveys, 

* The principal verbs which may be said to govern a dative, 
are to give^ lend^ read^ fetch:, get^ send^ bring ^ ^ff^^t promise^ tell, 
reach, leave^ with their derivatives. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

like the infinitive mood, an abstract idea of the ac- 
tion ; as. The writing so much fatigues me ; which 
is the same in sense as, to write so much^ etc. : and 
this may be considered as one of the peculiarities of 
the English ; for in most other languages the infini- 
tive would be employed in phrases of this kind; in 
the English, the use of the infinitive would give a 
stiff and foreign air to the sentence. When a noun 
or pronoun personal precedes a participle present 
standing thus in the place of a substantive, the ar- 
ticle is omitted, and the first noun is in the geni- 
tive case, according to the rule already given; as, 
Who ivould have thought of Alexander's conquering the 
' world f i. e., 0/ the conquering the woi^ld by Alexander, 
It might be rendered by a verb personal with the 
conjunction that — i. e., that Alexander would conquer^ 
etc., but it would be less idiomatic. 

^' When the nominative case has no personal tense 
of a verb, but is put before a participle, independ- 
ently of the rest of the sentence, it is called the case 
absolute ; as, ' Shame being lost^ all virtue is lost.^ 
' That having been discussed long ago^ there is no occa^ 
sion to resume it^ " 

6. Adverb, 

The adverb has its place most frequently after the 
verb, and before the adjective, whose sense it mod- 
ifies ; but not unfrequently it is placed between the 
auxiliary and the participle or infinitive of a com- 
pound tense ; as, 

" I speak but brotherly of him." 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 129 

*•' Epictetus makes use of another kind of allusion 
which is VERY beautiful and wonderfully proper to 
incline us to be satisfied with the post in which Prov- 
idence has placed us." 

"Men . . who are contented with a competency, 
and w^LL not molest their tranquillity to gain an 
abundance." 

" The Stoics thought they could not sufficiently 
REPRESENT the excellence of virtue if they did not 
comprehend in the notion of it all possible perfec- 
tions." 

"Vice always creeps by degrees, and insensibly 
twines around us those concealed fetters by which 
we ARE at last completely bound." 

The following is the usual place in the sentence, 
of the different kinds of adverbs : 

1. Adverbs of Number are usually placed after 

the verb and its accusative, if it be a verb transitive ; 

as, I told them twice: but sometimes they will be 

found placed between the pronoun and the verb ; as, 

/ t^vice told them ; or even before it, when much 

emphasis is required ; as, 

" Once or twice 
I was about to speak and tell him plainly," etc. 

The first, however, is the natural and colloquial or- 
der of the words. 

2. Adverbs of Order stand after the verb ; as, / 
went FIRST : or the verb and its accusative, if there be 
one ; as, / saw Mm last. Like those of number, 
too, they may be removed from their usual place for 
the sake of emphasis. 

I 



130 ENGLISH GBAMMAK. 

3. Adv:erbs of Place are always after the verb, 
excepting in one or two especial phrases. Thus we 
say. Come hither, he is going thither, they are here, 
/ luas THERE : but these last have their place first in 
the phrases here am I, there he is, and the like ; 
as, " Hei^e am I, for thou didst call me." 

4. Adverbs of Time have their place after the 
verb, or between the pronoun or nominative and the 
verb, or, in compound tenses between the auxiliary 
and the participle ; as, 

" I happened to stumble against a crust and fell 
flat on my face. I got up immediately ^^^ etc. 

"When dinner was almost done, the nurse came 
in with a child of a year old in her arms, who im- 
mediately SPIED me," etc. 

" The barbarity of the action was represented to 
Mark Antony, who immediately summoned Herod." 

" Two hundred carpenters and engineers were 
immediately set to work." 

Sometimes an adverb of time stands absolutely, 
and then it has its place at the beginning of the sen- 
tence ; as, 

" Hereafter ye shall see the son of man," etc. 

" Immediately after the tribulation of those days — " 

Now, when used as an expletive, also stands first 
in the sentence ; as. 

Now when Jesus was born in Bethlehem — " 

5. Adverbs of Quantity may be placed after or 
before the verb indiiferently ; as, he had enough to 
pay his expenses, or, enough vjas given him to pay his 
expenses. Much is required^ I do not ash much. 



ENGLISH GEAMMAK. 181 

In these cases, however, the adverbs are used 
rather as nouns substantive. 

6. Advekbs of Quality are placed after the verb, 
or between the nominative and verb ; as, he reasoned 

WISELY. 

" I am not prone to weeping as our sex 
Commonly are — " 

7. Advekbs of Doubt are generally placed first ; 
as, PERHAPS he will come, 

8. Adverbs of Affirivl^tion also stand before 
the verb ; as, yes you may, Certaikly they were im- 
prudent, 

9. Adverbs of Negation. Of these no has its 
place before, and not after the verb. No is frequently- 
used almost as an adjective to a noun ; as, no one^ no 
man^ and thus makes, with the substantive, the nom- 
inative to a verb ; and not is sometimes used in the 
same way ; as, not one of them spoke ^ and then of 
course it precedes the verb. More commonly it takes 
its natural place ; as, / thought not. / did not ifn- 
tend to go. He icill not come. Though Milton has 
sometimes used two negatives as an affirmative, yet 
it is a practice not to be imitated, for it produces a 
harsh and unpleasing phrase. 

10. Adverbs of Intderrogation stand before the 
verb ; as. How can it he f Why icas it done ? 

11. Adverbs of Co^iparison. Of these, almost 
usually takes its place between the nominative and 
the verb ; as, / have almost done. The rest are 
placed after it ; as, we think alike. They have seen 
more. 



132 ENGLISH ' GKAMMAR. 

There is a mistake very prevalent in common par- 
lance at present, which may here be noticed ; namely, 
the making the adverbs of time, immediately and di- 
rectly^ do duty as conjunctions. It has been seen by 
quotations from good writers, that immediately can 
not take its place at the beginning of a sentence, un- 
less it stand absolutely, and be followed by a prep- 
osition ; as, immediately upon^ immediately after ; and 
without some such arrangement it can not take its 
place before the nominative ; yet we commonly hear 
and even read such phrases as, immediately he 
heard it he departed. Directly he arrived^ the horses 
were hrought. In all such cases it stands, and stand 
improperly, in the room of the conjunction ivhen^ or 
the phrase as soon as^ and is particularly offensive to 
an ear trained to any thing like grammatical accuracy. 

7. ^reposition* 

The English preposition may be held always to 
govern an accusative case. In composition it is 
•sometimes inseparably joined to the verb ; as, Xo for- 
get, to underidk.^ ; but it is more frequently separa- 
ble ; as, to get in^ to answer for^ to stand hy^ to go for^ 
to part withj etc. The place which these separable 
prepositions are to take, is left very much to the 
taste of the author ; and it has, in modern writing, 
been generally thought proper to place the preposi- 
tion with a relative before the verb ; as. The friends 
WITH WHOM we parted yesterday. The cause by 
WHICH we intend to stand to the last : yet this is not 
the natural arrangement of the words, and much of 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 138 

the force of the expression is lost by making the 
mind of the hearer or reader wait to see what verb 
is coming to decide the meaning of the sentence. 
The friends that ive parted ^vith yesterday ; the cause 
that ive intend to stand by to the last — is both more 
English in arrangement, and more forcible in expres- 
sion ; in some cases the preposition may even be 
placed farther from the verb without losing force : 
but it must be after , not before it. This arrangement 
of separable prepositions is a part of the Teutonic 
character of the language, and so far from being in- 
elegant, is almost essential to an idiomatic style. 
Where the preposition forms no part of the verb, it 
is best placed near the word it governs. Thus, in — 
it was done in a strange ivay — in governs a strange ivay^ 
and therefore in speaking of it we should say, the 
strange ivay in ivhich it ivas done^ and it would be a 
clearer and better expression than if we were to say, 
the strange ivay that it ivas done in, though even this 
is not altogether forbidden ; as, 

"I give them with this ring, 
Which, when jou jxirt from., lose, or give away^ 
Let it presage the ruin of your love." 

The proper place, therefore, which should be as- 
signed to the preposition is that which will make 
the sentence most clear and rapid in its expression ; 
for, if we attentively study the habits of our nation, 
we shall find that it does not easily brook delay in 
any thing, whether it be in speech or action. Even 
our words are shortened to the utmost in the pro- 
nunciation, and frequently abridged of a syllable or 



134 ENGLISH GRAMIIAR, 

two, to save time and trouble in speaking ; we may 
therefore be well assured that any mode of arranging 
the phrase which gives a slower march to the sen- 
tence, is repugnant to the genius of the language, 
and will never make a pleasing style. 

8. Coiyunction. 

Some conjunctions have a government of moods, 
i, e., require the indicative or subjunctive mood to 
follow them, while others, such as and, hut, as, etc., 
have no influence whatever on the mood. 

Hypothetical, conditional, concessive, and except- 
ive conjunctions, such as if, though, except, whether, 
etc., seem, in general, to require the subjunctive 
mood* after them ; but when the sense is meant to 
be at all decisive, even these have the indicative af- 
ter them. The following are examples of their gov- 
ernment of the subjunctive, taken from the transla- 
tion of the Bible : 

" If thou he the son of God — " 

" Though he slay me — " 

" Unless he tvash his flesh — " 

" — no power except it tvere given from above." 

" Whether it were I or they." 

In each of these cases something contingent or 
doubtful is expressed. In the following the indica- 
tive mood is used to imply a greater degree of cer- 
tainty : 

" // the Scripture has, as surely it has, left this 
matter," etc. 

-'' y.Lowth's Grammar. 



ENOLISH GRAIVEVIAR. 135 

"Nor has any one reason to complain for want 
of farther information^ unless he can show his claim 
to it." 

''But though we are sufficiently instructed for the 
common purposes of life," etc. 

That^ expressing the motive or end, will have the 
subjunctive mood; generally, however, in the tenses 
formed with may or the conditional of shall ; as, 

" Full well ye reject the commandment of God, 
that ye may keep your own tradition." 

Lest governs a subjunctive ; as, 

"Let him that thinketh he standeth take heed lest 
hQfalU' 

Than and as, expressing a comparison of the 
qualities of persons or things, govern no mood, but, 
Hke all conjunctions, require to be followed by the 
same cases, moods, and tenses as have preceded it ; 
as, " thou art iciser than I (am) ; you are not so tall 
AS I (am) ; you think hhn handsomer than (you think) 
me^ and you love hhn more than (you love) one. In 
all other instances, if you complete the sentence in 
like manner by supplying the part which is under- 
stood, the case of the latter noun will be determined ; 
thus, Plato observes that God geometrizes^ and the same 
thing was observed hy a iciser man than /z^— that is, 
than he teas. It ivas well observed by Plato y bat more 
elegantly by Solomon than him — that is, than by him,^ 

Some conjunctions have certain correlatives which 
must always follow them ; as, 

1. Though, although .... yet, nevertheless ; as, 
* V. Lowth's Grammar, p. 180= 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

" Though he was ricli, yet for our sakes he became 
poor." 

2. Whether .... or; as, whether he will go or 
not J I can not tell, 

8. Either .... or; as, / will either send it 
OR hring it, 

4. Neither , . . nor ; as, neither he nor / can 
accomplish it, 

. It is a fault to confound these, and use or as the 
following conjunction to neither. 

5. As .... AS; expressing a comparison of equal- 
ity; as, she is as amiable as her sister, 

A vulgar redundance has crept into common par- 
lance occasionally, and equally as is used instead of 
as; hut equally is an adverb; and an adverb stands 
only with a verb or an adjective; therefore if equally 
be used, the sentence must be so turned as to let the 
adverb modify the adjective ; as, she and her sister 
are equally amiable, 

6. As .... so ; expressing a comparison of re- 
semblance: "as tlie stars so shall they heP And it 
shcdl be as with the people so with the priest^ etc. As 
the one dieth so dieth the other. Sometimes they are 
reversed ; as, Vesuvius is not so high as ^tna, 

7. So ... . THAT, expressing a consequence ; as, 
he was so offended that he left the room. 

When the verb is compounded with an auxiliary, 
the conjunction and usually causes the omission of 
all but the participle in the second verb ; as, / have 
been and told him^ instead of / have been and I have 
told him. 



ENGLISH GRAIMMAR. 137 

9. Interjection. 
Interjections are not commonly supposed to have 
any government, nevertheless we always find an ac- 
cusative after ah and oh ; as, ah ime ! ivhat do I hear f 
probably therefore the preposition for is understood, 
i. e., ah for me ! as it is always expressly written aft- 
er 'alas ; as, alas for my children ! alas for thee ! 



QUESTIONS. 



[The following Questions are in no wise supposed to exhaust the pages 
to which they apply. They have been written to indicate the method of 
inquiry ; and in so doing will aid the scholar. They are not designed to 
supersede the teacher's minute examination of his pupils' attainments.] 



INTRODUCTION. 



Page 13. 

What favorite notion has prevailed among English writers ? 
"What has been the product of this notion ? 
What writers are generally accounted the best ? 
What must inhere in all languages — and why ? 
Do all nations agree in the minor manifestations of general 
principles ? 

Page 14. 

Has the English language peculiar idioms ? 
Why can not a language originate amidst civilization and 
vefinement ? 

Why are rude and barbarous tribes poetical in their language ? 

Page 15. 

What instances of natural but metaphysical expression are 
cited from the Old Testament ? 

Page 16. 

How may we form a notion of what constitutes a forcible and 
good style ? 

In what condition did the parent race leave their language, 
and how was this enlarged .^ 

In what does the art of good writing consist ? 



140 QUESTIONS. 



Page 17. 

What is the relation of letters or literature to spoken words ? 

How were the earliest records, philosophy, and science com- 
municated ? 

What may we learn from this in respect of good writing or a 
good style? 

When does the deterioration of a language usually occur ? 

What are the causes of deterioration ? 

Page 18. 

What historical instances are cited to show this ? 
In process of time what reaction ensues ? 
Why is correct and appropriate colloquial English the essence 
of a good style ? 

Page 19. 
What mainly characterizes the expressions which Shakspeare 
assigns to Macduff, as above cited ? 

What are two faults in style prevalent in this age ? 

Page 20. 

What does the writer adduce in proof of his remarks on the 
Anglo-Saxon elements of our language ? 

How may we measure the goodness of a style ? 

Page 29. 

What are offered here in contrast with the foregoing pas- 
sages ? 

Why are these selections less pleasing than the preceding 
ones ? 

What is their respective amount of Saxon or Teutonic mat- 
ter? 

Page 32. 

What general remark is made on the last quotations ? 
What particular remark is made on Lord Byron ? 

Page 33. 
How must a nice and discriminating taste be acquired ? 
What rules are given to aid in its formation ? 



QUESTIONS. 141 



THE GROUNDS OF THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF 
GRAMMAR. 

Page 34. 

What is the derivation of the word grammar ? 
What does the English term express ? 
What are the constituent parts of general grammar ? 
Out of what circumstances in all communities do the rela- 
tions of things arise ? 

Page 35. 

Out of what circumstances do times and modes of action arise ? 

Into what may languages be divided ? 

Why does History have recourse to language for light ? 

Page 36. 

With what language do the nations of the north and south of 
Europe have many forms in common ? 

Where would the type of the Teutonic dialects be found ? 

What is the type of the languages in southern Europe ? 

Why did the Teutonic family study the Latin tongue ? 

Does the influence of the Latin continue to be great ? 

What grammar is preferable to the Latin, as an introduction 
for English students to the principles of language ? 

Page 37. 

What are some of the points of resemblance between the 
Greek and English ? 

What advantages appertain to an acquaintance with the 
general principles of grammar ? 

Page 38. 
How may we apply a knowledge of the general principles of 
grammar to the study of some particular language ? 



142 QUESTIONS. 

UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR. 

Parts of Speech. 

Page 39. 

What are the different words used between man and man 
technically called.? 

What is the Noun Substantive ? 

What is the Verb ? 

Why are these two parts of speech found in all languages ? 

Why was the Noun Adjective invented? 

W^hy the Pronoun ? 

Why the Adverb ? 

Page 40. 

Why the Preposition ? 

Why the Conjunction? 

Why the Interjection ? 

How did the grammatical distinction of Singular and Plural 
arise ? 

What additional distinction do some languages have ? 

Why would the dual number naturally be more ancient than 
the plural ? 

How did the plural supersede the dual ? 

Page 41. 

How did the grammatical distinction of Gender arise ? 

What is the odd usage of most nations with respect to gen- 
der? 

What is the general rule in English respecting gender ? 

What does the term case in grammar denote ? and why were 
cases formed ? 

Page 42. 

Do distinctive terminations mark English cases ? 
Why must cases nevertheless exist in English grammar ? 
What is the meaning of the term Voice, and why is there 
the distinction of Active and Passive ? 

Page 43. 

Do all languages restrict themselves to these two voices ? 
What are Moods? 



QUESTIONS. 143 

What are Tenses ? 

On what is the distinction of tenses founded ? 

Do all nations have the same subdivision of tenses ? 

Page 44. 

On what grounds is the present tense excluded ? 
Why do adjectives and adverbs admit of degrees of power, 
called degrees of comparison ? 

What is said of the radical rules of Syntax ? 
What is the First Concord ? 

Page 45. 

What exception to this rule exists in the Greek language — 
and w hy .? 

What is the Second Concord ? 

What apparent exception to this rule is found in English ? 

Why is it not a real exception 1 

What is the Third Concord .? 

Page 46. 

Does the English depart from this rule "> 
Why must the verb substantive have the same case after as 
before it 1 

What is the rule with respect to verbs transitive ? 
Why do verbs govern different cases ? 

Page ^Ti. 
Why does no nominative accompany the infinitive mood ? 
Why do prepositions generally govern a case .^ 
What do conjunctions require in the construction of Avords ? 
What advantages will flow from a knowledge of the fore- 
going rules ? 



144 QUESTIONS. 

ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 

Page 49. 

What are the several parts of speech ? 
Is the Article generally found in languages ? 
How many Articles has the English language ? 
When is A changed into An 9 

What changes does the Article undergo in other languages 
than our own ? 

What is the power of the Article A ? 

What is the power of The ? 

When may A or An be used indifferently ? 

Page 50. 

When must An ho, used ? 
What is the Noun Substantive ? 

What Anglo-Saxon attribute has our English Substantive 
lost? 

How is the regular English plural formed ? 
What are the irregular Saxon derivative plurals ? 

Page 51. 

Are these irregular in the Saxon dialect ? 

What nouns form their plural by changing/ final into ves ? 

What reason can you assign for this change ofyinto v? 

Page 52. 

How do you account for the presence of e in these and also 
other plurals ? 

When do substantives ending in y change y into ies ? 

When is the y retained ? 

What plural forms do many Greek and Latin words have in 
English ? 

How many Genders belong to the English Substantive ? 

Which gender characterizes the greatest number of nouns ? 

What is the general English rule for the determination of 
gender ? 

When are exceptions allowed ? 

What are some of these exceptions ? 

Page 53. 

How is the gender of such animals as are more commonly 
spoken of designated ? 



QUESTIONS. 145 

How many Cases have English Substantives ? 

What is expressed by these cases ? 

How do you decline the substantive Man ? 

Page 54. 

How can you show that these are true cases ? 
"What is the view of Drs. MuiTay and Beattie ? 
TThat reply may be made to their objections ? 

Page 55. 
How does Dr. Lowth illustrate the reality of English cases ? 

Page 56. 

Do cases inhere in the very nature of language ? 
Wherein lies the error of those who would ignore the English 
cases ? 

Page 57. 

How do you decline the Saxon noun Smi5 ^ 
What is the characteristic termination of its genitive ? 
What have we in English derived from this genitive ? 
How is this made more evident ? 

Page 58. 

What distinguishes the second and third declensions of 
Anglo-Saxon Substantives ? 

What distinguishes the first declension ? 

Which form does the English retain, with one omission how- 
ever ? 

Why is this omission to be regretted ? 

What did the Anglo-Saxons call the Xoun Adjective ? 

What feature of the Adjective may be regarded as an En- 
glish peculiarity ? 

How are the Comparative and Superlative degrees regularly 
formed ? 

Page 59. 

"VMience are these suffixes derived ? 

What adjectives are irregularly compared? 

Explain the origin of these seeming anomalies. 

Page 60, 

How are polysyllables usually compared ? 

Are the numeral adjectives declined in English ? 

K 



146 QUESTIONS. 

What are pronouns ? 
Into what three sorts are they divided ? 
What is the origin of the First Person ? 
What is the origin of the Second Person ? 
What is the origin of the Third Person ? 

Page 61. 

Why are these pronouns called Primitive ? 
What classification of them is made ? . 
What are the properties of the Possessive ? 
What of the Eelative ? 
What of the Demonstrative ? 
What of the Distributive ? 
What of the Interrogative ? 
What of the Indefinite ? 

How is the Primitive Pronoun of the First Person de- 
clined ? 

Page 62. 

How do you decline the Primitive Pronoun of the Second 
Person ? 

How do you decline the Primitive Pronoun of the Third Per- 
son .? 

Page 63. 

What are the Possessive Pronouns belonging respectively to 
the Primitives ? 

Which pronoun alone can perfectly supersede the noun ? 

What advantage may a knowledge of this afford to foreign- 
ers ? 

What is English usage respecting the genitive case of the 
primitive ? 

Page 64. 

What is the usage in Southern Europe ? 

Which method avoids ambiguity ? 

When is the English Possessive Pronoun used ? 

What are the Relative Pronouns ? 

How are Who and Which declined ? 

How are That and What declined ? 

To what pronouns is What equivalent ? 

Page 65. 
Which are the Demonstrative Pronouns ? 



QUESTIONS. 147 

What changes do they undergo ? 
Which are the Distributive Pronouns ? 
What is the distinctive relation of Either ? 
What is the distinctive relation oi Every'? 
What nature does Each partake of? 
Which are the Interrogative Pronouns ? 
How is Which used ? 
How is What used ? 

Page m. 

Why are the Indefinite Pronouns so called ? 
Which are Indefinite Pronouns ? 
How is One declined ? 
How is Other declined ? 
When is the form others used ? 

Page 67. 
What peculiar class of pronouns does the English language 
have ? 

What are the component parts of these pronouns ? 

What does the Verb express ? 

Of what two sorts is it ? 

How many voices have English verbs ? 

What does each voice express ? 

Page 68. 

How many Moods do verbs have ? 

What is the office of each mood ? 

How many tenses are simple ? 

Are the compound tenses few ? 

Which parts of the regular verb can be expressed without the 
aid of auxiliaries ? 

Which part of the Passive Voice is independent of an auxiliary ? 

Are the auxiliary verbs of much moment in our language ? 

Wherein does the Anglo-Saxon verb excel the modern En* 
glish verb ? 

Page 71. 

What tenses do the defective auxiliaries at present have ? 
What sense or power did these auxiliaries possess in them- 
selves ? 

What ofiice did Shall perform in the Anglo-Saxon ? 
Which are the complete auxiliaries ? 
Which are the defective auxiliaries ? 



148 QUESTIONS. 

Page 72. 

What is can derived from, and what does it mean ? 
What is may derived from, and what does it mean ? 
What does may denote, when compounded with the Infin- 
itive ? 

What is its power when compomided with have or he '? 

Page 73. 

When does it denote the possibility of doing a thing ? 
What does might become when compounded with have or 

What sense does might acquire from a union with the Infin- 
itive Mood ? 

Page 74. 

What is the derivation of must^ and what does it mean ? 

Is must variable in its form ? 

Wherein does must differ from the second or imperative future 

shall? 

Page 75. 
How is the verb to have conjugated ? 

Page 76. 
Is if th.Q only conjunction proper for the Subjunctive Mood ? 

Page 11, 

How are all the tenses of the Subjunctive Mood, except the 
present and imperfect, formed ? 

How are the Present and Imperfect tenses of the Potential 
Mood formed ^ 

How are the Perfect and Pluperfect formed ? 

What is meant by the term Potential ? 

How is the Potential Mood conjugated ? 

Page 79. 
How is the verb to he conjugated ? 

Page ^2. 

When the verb to he is compounded with the past participle, 
what does it form ? 

What does it form when compounded with the present par^ 
ticiple ? 



QUESTIONS. 149 

What does it express when compounded with the present 
participle of the verbs to go and to come '? 

Wherein are Do and Let different from the other auxiliaries ? 
How is the auxiliary do conjugated? 

Page 83. 
What is the modern use of the auxiliary do ? 
What peculiar sense does it sometimes express in its past 
participle ? 

What are its peculiar meanings in the present participle ? 

Page 84. 

What is the restricted use of the auxiliary let ? 
What word in the Anglo-Saxon supplied all the persons of 
the simple future ? 

What do our English futures require ? 
What is the form of our simple future ? 
What idea is prominent in our simple future ^ 

Page 85. 

In the imperative future what do will and shall denote 1 
What is the scheme of their power in the modern verb ? 
Why are shall and icill used intermixedly ? 
What is shall derived from, and what do the primitive forms 
of the word denote ? 

Page 86. 

Of what tico ideas does shall express a combined sense ? 
What is the derivation of the word will ? 
Why is will used to denote future time ? 
What do icill and shall radically refer to ? 

Page 87. 

WTiy do toill and shall naturally tend to an interchangeable 
use? 

Which of the two constituent ideas in shall and icill would, in 
process of time, naturally predominate ? 

Why would confusion arise in the use of these two words ? 

Does English Literature show a confused use of these 
words ? 

Page ^^. 
Why would not even uncritical ages confound will and shall 
in cases of stern command and resolute purpose ? 



150 QUESTIONS. 

Page 89. 
Do early writers use these words correctly in such cases ? i 
Page 90. 

What were effected in our literature and language during 
the Elizabethan age ? 

How were some of these improvements wrought ? 

Why would Shakspeare naturally effect improvement in the 
use of language ? 

Page 91. 

What impediments would obstruct even his course ? 
Has Shakspeare correctly discriminated between will and 
shall? 

Page 93. 

Was the proper distinction between will and shall invariably 
observed by the writers of the Elizabethan age, and those suc- 
ceeding soon after ? 

What would prevent good use from quickly becoming gen- 
eral? 

Page 94. 

What is the true statement respecting the change effected in 
the age of Elizabeth ? 

Page 95. 

What are Wallis's rules respecting the power and use of 
shall and will? 

What inquiries concerning the use of will and shall here 
arise ? 

On what basis does the answer to these questions rest ? 

Page 96. 

Why did will become the exponent of the simple future 
tense ? 

Why did shall become the exponent of the imperative future ? 

What is the normal form of these two futures ? 

In what respects has established use changed this form ? 

Why is shall more proper than will in the First Person of 
the simple future tense ? 

Why does the use of will in the Second and Third Persons, 
indicate refinement ? 



QUESTIONS. 151 

Page 97. 

Why is will used in the First Person of the imperative fu- 
ture ? 

Why is shall used in the Second and Third Persons ? 
Is the modern form of these futures correct ? 
How is the Active Voice of the regular verb formed ? 
How do you conjugate the verb to love ? 

Page 100. 

How is the Passive Voice of the regular verb formed? 
How is the Passive Voice to he loved conjugated? 

Page 110. 

What did the Anglo-Saxons call the Adverb ? 
What office does the adverb fulfil ? 
Into what classes are adverbs divided? 

Page 111. 

How are some adverbs compared ? 
Why are Prepositions so called ? 
What is their use ? 
Are they used figuratively ? 
What do they literally denote ? 

Page 112. 

Which are the chief English prepositions ? 

What is except a contraction of? 

Are prepositions used in composition ? 

What is the difference between Latin and Teutonic preposi- 
tions when compounded ? 

When prepositions are compounded with verbs, does a change 
of place create a difference of meaning 7 

Page 113. 

What is a difference between hy and with 9 
What are Conjunctions ? 
What are Copulatives ? 
What are Disjunctives ? 

Page 114. 
When do adverbs and prepositions become conjunctions? 
Which are the principal copulative conjunctions ? 
Which are the principal disjunctive conjunctions ? 



152 QUESTIONS, 

Why is our language well fitted for processes of argument, 
investigation, and science ? 

What does an abundance of conjunctions in a language in- 
dicate ? 

Page 115. 

What are Interjections ? 

Why have we few interjections in English ? 

Which are genuine interjections ? 

Which are verbs ? 

What are the residue ? 

SYNTAX. 
Page 116. 

What is the meaning of the word Syntax ? 
What is the object of all the rules of Syntax ? 
What constitute the genius of a language ? 
What evil consequence follows the neglect of the genius of 
our language ? 

What must Syntax necessarily treat oi? 
Why must it treat of these ? 

Page 111, 

What is an English peculiarity in the place of the nomina- 
tive case ? 

Why is this arrangement almost imperative ? 

Why need we not shrink from putting a small word at the 
end of a sentence ? 

Page 118. 

What is gained in a sentence by having the verb to follow 
close upon the nominative ? 

When may an accusative case be put in the first part of a 
sentence ? 

Page 119. 

What is occasionally nominative to a verb ? 
What is often put as nominative to a verb ? 
Why is the agreement of the adjective with the substantive 
in English rather understood than expressed ? 

Page 120. 
Wherein does the Relative agree with its Antecedent ? 



QUESTIONS. 153 

Why is this agreement easily observed in English ? 

Is an agreement in case also required ? 

What can easily detennine the case of the relative ? 

Page 121. 
What rules for determining the case are here given ? 
What is the grammatical analysis of the quotation on this 



When the relative refers to two antecedents of different gen- 
ders, what word is used instead of who or which? 

Page 122. 

Why do we use this word ? 

What does the loss of inflectional terminations in English 
affect ? 

What consequently determines the regimen of words ? 
Where is the proper place of the English Article ? 

Page 123. 

Wherein does English tisage resemble the Greek ? 
What is the effect of our Article on a participle ? 
When two substantives of different signification come to- 
gether, which stands first in English ? 

Whence is the English arrangement derived ? 

Page 124. 

What substitution is used to avoid the repetition of sibi- 
lants ? 

Is the genitive case alone ever used ? 

When there are two or more substantives relating to the 
same thing, to which is the sign of the genitive case appended? 

In such cases, how is the whole phrase considered ? 

Page 125. 

Where is the usual place of the Adjective ? 

When two or more adjectives are used with one substantive, 
where may they be put ? 

Why may they be thus placed ? 

What is the effect of the article the when prefixed to an ad- 
jective ? 

Why is the pronoun more capable of transposition than 
nouns ? 

Who have availed themselves of this privilege ? 

Why must it be sparingly used ? 



154 QUESTIONS. 



Page 126. 

What services does the pronoun it render ? 
In the room of what pronouns is it often used ? 
"What is the English rule respecting the case before and after 
the substantive verb ? 

What does the Infinitive Mood not admit of? 

Page 127, 

What cases do Y^xh^oi giving, lending, etc., govern ? 

How do you determine the presence of the dative case in the 
instances given ? 

What case do all other transitive verbs govern ? 

Why does no case follow intransitive verbs ? 

When the verb to he denotes possession, what case follows it ? 

What is really understood in such instances ? 

What does the present participle become when preceded by 
an article ? 

Page 128. 

Why may this be considered an English idiom ? 
What is our idiom when a noun or personal pronoun precedes 
a present participle thus used ? 

What is the nominative case absolute ? 
Where is the adverb generally placed ? 
What, however, is frequent usage ? 

Page 129. 

Where are adverbs of Number usually placed ? 
Where do adverbs of Order stand ? 

Page 130. 

Where are adverbs of Place put ? 

Where do adverbs of Time have their place ? 

Where may adverbs of Quantity be placed ? 

Page 131. 
Where are adverbs of Quality placed ? 
Where are adverbs of Doubt placed ? 
Where do adverbs of Affirmation stand ? 
Where are No and Not placed ? 

What other than an adverbial use is made of these Negatives ? 
Where do adverbs of Interrogation stand ? 
What is the usual place of adverbs of Comparison ? 



QUESTIONS. 155 

Page 132. 
What mistake prevails respecting immediately and directly^ 
What case does the English preposition always govern ? 
When in composition with a verb, but separated from it, what 
determines the place of the preposition ? 

Page 133. 

Which is a decidedly English arrangement of the preposition 
in the cases cited ? 

Whence is this arrangement of separable prepositions derived ? 

Is this usage a good one ? 

Where should the preposition be placed when it forms no 
part of the verb ? 

What general consideration should control the place of the 
preposition ? 

Page 134. 

What arrangement is repugnant to the genius of our people 
and language ? 

Do all Conjunctions have influence on the Moods ? 

Which kinds of conjunctions require the Subjunctive Mood? 

Page 135. 

What is English usage respecting than and as^ expressing a 
comparison of qualities ? 

Page 136. 

What are the respective correlatives of though^ although^ 
whether^ either^ neither^ as, and so ? 

Why is there a redundance in the expression equally as, when 
used for as ? 

When a verb is compounded with an auxiliary, what is the 
influence of the conjimction aiid ? 

Page 137. 

What case do we always find after the inteijections ah and oh ? 
Are interjections supposed to have any government ? 
Upon what, then, does the accusative case after oh and ah 
depend ? 



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